实训项目五:中英双语法律文书中的常见错误及其修正
一、实训目标
通过实训,使学生熟悉中英双语法律文书中的常见错误以及造成这些错误的原因。通过实训,使学生重视除了歧义之外的中英双语法律文书中的常见错误,并积极地采取措施,发现和纠正这些错误,从而提高涉外法律实务的操作水平和业务能力。通过实训,使学生加强修正各种中英双语法律文书中的常见错误的练习,并结合之前修正歧义的实训,总结自己的心得体会,灵活运用多种方法,提高涉外法律文书制作的质量。
二、实训原理
在准备双语法律文书时,歧义确实是一个大问题,但并非是唯一的问题。律师事务所在起草双语合同时会发现,实践中有许多因素会导致中英两个文本的不一致。在起草双语法律文本时因不注意源语或目的语的歧义而导致两个文本有不同的法律效果,可以说是一种错误,但这也只是其中的一个因素。
根据笔者的实践,在制作双语合同中遇到的错误,许多不是由歧义引起的,而只是翻译中的错误,即不正确或不适当的翻译所引起的。这些错误有多种类型,有时显而易见,有时难以察觉,有时甚至不算是错误。
(一)粗心
1.打字时变换数字的错误
一项经过多次修改的许可协议,在其英文原文的表述中,所提供的技术许可的是下列产品:
“the transmission of 4T65E of the Buick Regal”
中文译成:“别克君威汽车的4T64E变速箱”,译者把65写成了64。
这类错误很常见。在数字上犯错的原因常常是由于念得太快,避免错误最好的办法,是在校对时把数字倒着念,因为这样可以减慢速度。习惯上从左到右念起来很容易,而如果是从右念到左,速度自然就放慢了,这样译者就可以一个字一个字地核对,从而避免出错。当然,不用把整个文件都倒着念,但是在碰到数字时,这样做就不易犯错了。
2.翻译数字时的粗心
一份合作经营企业合同规定了乙方向合作企业提供的投资以及合作的条件,其英文原文为:
“contribution of up to US!100,000(for renovation of the Site)...”
中文译文为:
“最多为100 000万美元的出资额(为整修场地的目的);”
中文译文说的100 000万美元等于10亿美元。中文写作时,译者习惯于在数字后加一个“万”。这样的错误应该小心加以避免。
3.使用术语时前后不一致
一份供应合同的第1.8条把“Affiliate”定义为具有两个特点:(1)美国母公司至少占50%的股份;(2)最低价格材料的供应源。凡不符合这两个条件的公司均不在该规定条款的范围内。
中文译文的第1.8条把“Affiliate”翻译为“连属公司”。
在英文本的第7.2条用的词语是小写的“affiliated companies”,但中文本中没有区分“Affiliates”和“affiliated companies”,把两者都译成了同样的词语。这是一个问题。
在第1.8、9.2、10.1条和其他条款中,中文译文对“Affiliates”一词的含义翻译不一致。有时译成“连属公司”,有时又译成“关联公司”。这又是一个问题。
在第1.10、3.1.1、7.2条和其他条款中,英文本对“Affiliates”一词的第一个字母是否需要大写的问题,在处理上并不一致。总之,在这个文件中存在许多处不一致。
4.漏译原语文本中的词语
《反不公平竞争法》第八条说:“…在账外暗中给予对方单位或个人回扣的,以行贿论处;对方单位或个人在账外暗中收受回扣的,以受贿论处。”
但英文译文漏译了“对方”二字:“...Any undercover rebates to units or individuals which have not been entered into the accounts shall be treated as bribes and the acceptance by any unit or individual of such rebates shall be treated as the acceptance of a bribe”。
由于漏译了“对方”这个词组,英文译文就不能明确地说明,文中所指是“对方的单位或个人”,还是指单位或个人就是对方?按照中文原意,所说的单位或个人只是“对方”的一个代表,而不是“对方”本身;英译本给人的印象则是这个单位或个人就是“对方”,而不只是文中其他地方提到的“对方”的一个代表。事实上,“对方单位”就等于是“对方的单位”。如果漏译了一个词,就会碰到这样的问题。
5.没有注意到相似条款之间的不同之处
禁止商业贿赂的临时条例第八条说:“经营者在商品交易中不得向对方单位或其个人附赠现金或者物品。但按照商业惯例赠送小额广告礼品的除外。”请注意这里在“个人”前加了一个“其”字。
英文翻译为:“A business operator may not,in a commodity transaction,make a gift of cash or things to a unit or individual except for small advertising gifts offered in accordance with commercial practice.”
译者在这里犯了两个错误。第一,把“对方”漏译了;第二,没有注意到中文原文在个人前加了一个“其”字。
正确的英文翻译应该是这样的:“A business operator may not,in a commodity transaction,make a gift of cash or things to the other party's unit or its individual except for small advertising gifts offered in accordance with commercial practice.”
如何翻译“其”一字,是个有趣的问题。在中文中,“其”究竟指“对方”还是指“单位”不太清楚,会引起歧义。看上去,它指最靠近的先行词“单位”的可能性较大。最妥当的翻译是“The other party's units or its individual”,“its”在英文里也会有歧义,但可能会被理解为指最靠近它的先行词“unit”,这样意思就和中文本一样了。如果说“the unit of the other party”,那么最靠近“its”的先行词就成了“other party”,“its”就可能被理解为修饰“the other party”。
同样的道理也适用于把“其个人”翻译成“an individual in it”的情况,因为,“it”的意思也有歧义,会被理解为指最靠近的先行词。在这个例子中,个人作为对方的代表、个人就是对方,个人作为对方的一部分,以及个人作为对方单位的一部分等表述,在意义上并没有什么重大的差别,但诸如此类的细微的歧义,也许在其他文件中会产生重要影响,故而应该引起译者的注意。
(二)对中文原文的误解
1.没有理解逗号对后修饰语的含义
《劳动法》第二十九条规定的是关于雇主不得解除劳动合同的一些情形。其中的第二款说:
“劳动者有下列情形之一的,用人单位不得依据本法第二十六条"第二十七条的规定解除劳动合同:
……
(2)患病或者负伤,在规定的医疗期内的;”
英文译文翻译为:
“An employer unit shall not be permitted to rescind a labor contract in accordance with the provisions of Articles 26 or 27 of this Law in any of the following circumstances:
…
(2)where a worker suffers from an illness or injury for which medical treatment within a stipulated period is allowed;”
这里所用的“for which”和“allowed”好像都不对。中文原文中并没有“allowed”(允许的)这个词。正确的翻译应该是:“(2)where a worker suffers from an illness or injury and is in the prescribed period of medical treatment.”或者可以这样说:“during the prescribed period of medical treatment where a worker suffers from an illness or injury.”所以,在规定的医疗期内,劳动者生病或受伤是不能被解雇的。
2.没有理解动词的主语和背景事实
《中外合作经营企业法实施条例》第七条:
设立合作企业应当由中国合作者向审查批准机关报送下列文件:
……
(1)“四"合作各方的营业执照或者注册登记证明"资信证明及法定代表的有效证明文件,……”
英文翻译为:
“(4)a business license or registration certificate,creditworthiness certificate and valid certification of the legal representative of the cooperative enterprise,...”
这里不应该译成“of the cooperative enterprise”。中文原文的意思不是企业的法定代表,而是合作各方的法定代表。译者不能忽略主语是谁。
3.没有理解技术术语
这是上海外高桥一家贸易公司的标准章程的第六十一条:
“公司提前终止经营,需董事会召开全体会议作出决定,并报原审批机构批准。”
在英文译文中,“全体会议作出决定”被译成“unanimously approved”(一致同意)。正确的英文表述应该是:“decided by the full board of directors.”
“A unanimous decision of the board of directors”的中文含义是“一致通过”,而不是“全体同意”。两者有很大的区别。
4.没有正确解释歧义
财政部1982年发布的一项规定(财税字[1982]326号)对外国技术持有者提供了某些税务优惠:
“一、下列各项专有技术使用费(包括与转让专有技术使用权有关的图纸资料费、技术服务费和人员培训费,下同)可以减按10%征收所得税,其中技术先进、条件优惠的,可以免征所得税。”
英文翻译为:
“...among them,those that have advanced technology and favorable conditions can be exempt from income tax.”
尽管中文本最后一句里的顿号是连接还是转折是存在歧义的,然而译者并没有把这个歧义在英文译文中反映出来。他作了个猜测,认为中文原文的意思可能是指共同连接。然而,国家税务总局在2005年发了一个通知(国税发[2005]45号),更清楚地阐明了同样的税务优惠政策。这个通知的有关规定如下:
“二、对外商提供属于《中华人民共和国外商投资企业和外国企业所得税法》第十九条第三款的(四)项及其《实施细则》第六十六条所列举的专有技术所取得的特许权使用费,且技术先进或者条件优惠的,需减免所得税的均应报国家税务总局批准。”
这个通知可以被合理地理解为,它不是改变以前的规定,而只是进一步阐明这里是转折的意思:
“...among them,those that have advanced technology or favorable conditionscan be exempt from income tax.”
译者在翻译该规定时,应加一个注解或其他说明,以表明中文原文之歧义。尽管注解在合同中是不允许出现的,但是在翻译法律条文和规定时是允许的。在上面的例子中,如果译者加了注解,说明了歧义,读者就不会被误导了。
(三)对英文原文的误解
1.没有理解客户的产品
这是一个翻译代表处的经营范围的例子。客户是户外地面保养设备的制造商。设备都由汽油机发动。在为客户申请代表处的表格中,译者在介绍客户产品时把“outdoor power equipment”译成了“户外电器设备”(outdoor electric power equipment),而不是“户外动力设备”(outdoor power equipment)。可见,译者在碰到“power”一词时应先弄清楚“power”的意思,同时,在作出如何翻译的决定前要了解客户的产品。
2.没有理解英文原文及其背景事实
中方有一次在修改合资企业合同的谈判中发出一封用中英文写的信。中文原文说:
“合营合同附件J附录B中的第一段仍按照张立先生的意见。”
英文译文为:
“Contents of paragraph 1 of Exhibit B to Appendix J to the Joint Venture Contract are still in accordance with Mr.Zhang Li's comments.”
美方建议删除张先生提议增加的一段话。中方认为张先生提议增加的话不应删除。如果要向英文读者清楚地表达这个意思,应该这样说:“Contents of paragraph 1 of Exhibit B to Appendix to the Joint Venture Contract should be in accordance with Mr.Zhang Li's comments”。要在英语中强调“仍按照”,就应用“should be”,而不是“is still”。这是一个很困难的翻译问题。
3.没有理解英文原文
这个例子取自一项补偿协议:
“Said indemnification shall specifically exclude legal actions against Party A to the extent that they claim the applicable UL Standard(s)are inadequate.”
中文译文为:
“所述补偿应明确不包括针对甲方的法律诉讼(甲方主张适用的UL标准不充分除外)。”
中文译文用了括号,并假定括号中的部分是除外的。如果把上面的中文再翻译成英文,意思就成了:
“Said indemnification shall specifically exclude legal actions against Party A(except when Party A claims the applicable UL Standard(s)are inadequate).”
但这不是英文原文的含义。译者没有理解英文短语“to the extent that”在功能上就等于“when”或“that”的意思。他也没有充分了解背景事实,不明白英文原文中的“they”不是指“甲方”,而是指“legal actions”。正确的中文译文应该是这样的:
“所述补偿应明确不包括因不符合主张适用的UL标准而针对甲方的法律诉讼。”
4.没有理解否定的范围
一份决定价格的供应合同有中英两个文本,两个文本同样有效。
英文原文:
“Prices Ex Plant:No Packing/Protection/Transport Included.”
中文译文:
“出厂价:无包装、防护、含运输。”
英文原文写明出厂价格不包括运输,但中文译文却说含运输。译者没有理解英语中“不”的否定范围,认为那只包括包装和防护。但在英文原文中,它还包括运输。译者看来是被斜线号和无连词等因素误导了。如果英文写为“No Packing,Protection,or Transport Included”,译者可能就不会理解错意思了。该例说明,应避免使用斜线号(/)。该例也说明,译者如果不懂或有问题应该提出来。但往往译者自以为都懂了,实际上却不懂。该例所反映的似乎就是这种情况。
(四)和客户沟通有误
这是一个因为和客户沟通有误,没有改正错误的例子:
译者在把一份中文的租赁协议译成英文时,把“冷气池”这个中文词语翻译成“cooling wells”。但客户希望将“cooling wells”改成“cooling towers”,以便和这个技术术语的英文用法保持一致。翻译把客户的意见理解为“cooling wells”和“cooling towers”在功能上是一致的,“cooling towers”是这个技术术语的英文名称。所以他在中文译稿中没有把“池”改成“塔”。结果客户在和中国出租者谈判时遇到了困难,因为建“塔”和建“池”的成本相差很大。这个例子说明,和客户沟通时需要非常小心。
(五)对背景事实理解错误
没有根据背景事实认识到中文文本中的歧义也是一个常见错误。
《信托法》第十条说:
“设立信托,对于信托财产,有关法律"行政法规规定应当办理登记手续的,应当依法办理信托登记。”
英文译文是这样的:
“To the extent required by relevant laws and administrative regulations,Trust property shall be registered according to law at the time of establishment of the Trust.”
正确的翻译应为:
“When creating a Trust,if the Trust property is required to be registered under relevant law and administrative regulations,registration of the Trust shall be carried out according to law.”
《信托法》规定没有登记的信托也可以有效。第十条只是说明在一种情况下,信托必须办理登记手续后才有效。它不是指办理财产登记,而是指办理信托本身的登记。关键是,信托财产如果需要登记,则必须办理信托登记。
(六)英文语言的结构问题
1.中文前修饰语的清晰与英文后修饰语的歧义之间的不可协调
在前面的许多例子中,我们都讨论过修饰语引起的问题。在中文中,如果出现两个由连词连起来的动词和一个修饰第二个动词的副词短语,那么很清楚,这个副词短语只修饰第二个动词。因为,前修饰的副词短语一般只修饰紧跟着它的动词。但若译成英文,英文的副词短语一般放在最后一个动词的后面,这个副词短语的修饰范围就会出现歧义。副词短语是修饰前面两个动词,还是只修饰最后一个动词?后修饰语只修饰最后一个动词,这一点不容置疑,但对于其是否也修饰第一个动词就有歧义了。中英文结构之间的区别可以用下面的公式来表示:
中文:动词+连词+副词短语+动词
英文:动词+连词+动词+副词短语
这是一个有关合资企业协议的例子:
中文原文:“甲方关联企业为生产和在中国推销合资产品设立的合资公司。”这里有两个动词“生产”和“推销”,以及“推销”前面的副词“在”。中文原意是指,这些产品是在哪里生产的并不确定,但它们是在中国销售的。
英文译文是这样说的:“Party A's related enterprise is a joint venture established for the purpose of manufacturing and marketing in China.”
句中“in China”是放在第二个动词后面的。它肯定修饰“marketing”,但它也可能修饰“manufacturing”。在英文中,你会假设它也修饰“manufacturing”。比较中文原文,就会发现英文译文是错误的,但这个错误又不可避免。因为,英语的结构不允许把副词短语放在第二个动词前,而只能放在后面。中文表述的意思是,只有推销在中国进行,但英文译文可以被理解为,生产和推销都在中国。如要把英文译成和中文的意思完全相同,句子就会显得很别扭。例如,“For the purpose of manufacturing and in-China marketing”,这样读起来就很不通顺。这是译文意思出错的一种情况,但又怎么来精确地表达中文的原意呢?或许,可以采用上面提到过的别扭的结构,问题是,客户可能不会接受这样的译稿。对于这种情况,译者应该向上级律师汇报。
这个例句说明了起草双语合同时,源语起草者应该了解目的语可能出现的问题。如果他了解了这些问题,他就可以在起草源语合同时不使用那些会在目的语中产生不可避免的歧义的结构。这个原则适用于英文为源语的情况,也适用于中文为源语的情况。有时候目的语所谓“不可避免的错误”是不了解目的语结构问题的源语起草人导致的。如果源语起草人了解目的语的结构问题,他在起草源语文书时就可以协助译者避免错误。
2.未能避免中文前修饰的清晰和英文后修饰的歧义之间的冲突
这个例子取自《外商投资产业指导目录》:
“(二十一)仪器仪表及文化、办公用机械制造业”
英文译文为:
“(21)Apparatus,instruments,and machines for cultural and office use manufacturing industry.”
在英文中,“for cultural and office use”跟在“machines”后面。中文原文中副词短语“文化、办公用”放在“机械”前面,一看就知是修饰后面的名词“机械”的,既不修饰“仪器”,也不修饰“仪表”。但英文译文中的“for cultural and office use”就会引起歧义,其修饰“机械”是不会错的,而其是否也修饰“仪器”和“仪表”就不清楚了。
在该例中,中文在最后一项使用了形容词的前修饰,译者也应该试着在英文中用一个前修饰的短语形容词。如果译成“Apparatus instruments,and cultural-and-office-use machines manufacturing industry”,就会更好些。使用带连字符的英文短语形容词有点别扭,但至少意思表达清楚了,比把修饰语放在最后一个名词后面要好。总之,中文前修饰与英文后修饰之间存在冲突,但在翻译成英文时有时候可以用一个英文前修饰的形容词短语来避免这个问题。
(七)中文语言的结构问题
英文后修饰的歧义与中文前修饰的清晰之间的冲突也会导致歧义。
这是一个英文的语言结构在译成中文时出现的问题。当英文原文中出现两个由连词连接的动词,以及跟在第一个动词后作后修饰的一个副词短语的时候,很清楚,副词短语只修饰第一个动词,如果前面只有一个动词,那么这个副词短语就只修饰那个动词。但是,中文一般只用前修饰,并且一个前修饰的副词短语可能修饰所有跟在其后面的动词,如果这个副词短语放在第一个动词前,它就不仅修饰第一个动词,也可能修饰第二个。所以,中文一般就不能表达两个动词中只有第一个动词有副词短语修饰的情况。这种情况可以用下面的公式来表达:
英文原文:
动词+副词短语+连词+动词
中文译文:
副词短语+动词+连词+动词
这是一个英文承包生产协议的例子:“Party B will confirm receipt within 15 days after receipt and airmail a certificate to Party A.”
中文译文:“……乙方在收到后15日内确认收到并以航空邮件向甲方寄出证件。”
英文中“15 days after receipt”这个短语只修饰“confirm”,它不修饰“airmail”。而同样的短语在中文里却修饰了两个动词,因为副词短语一般必须放在动词前。中文译文是“错”的,但这个“错”却好像又不可避免,因为中文的结构需要有前修饰。在这个例子中,英文的意思很清晰。乙方在15日内需做的只是确认收到,而不是寄出证件。但是,中文译文有歧义。中文译文的含义是确认收到和寄出证件都必须在15日内完成,但是寄出证件是否也必须在15日内完成就不清楚了。因为在译文中“并”这个连词前没有逗号,所以短语“收到15日内”可能也修饰动词“寄出”。
制作双语法律文书时最大的危险是两个有同等法律效果的文本的不一致。导致两个文本不一致的因素很多,除了歧义之外还有粗心、对原文的误解、与客户沟通有误、对背景事实的理解错误,以及英文和中文语言结构的问题等。为避免这些因素造成的错误,应采取各种措施。比方说要避免粗心,就要制定和实行某些程序使律师或译者在准备双语法律文书时加倍小心;要避免对原文的误解,就要提高律师或译者的英语和中文的水平;要避免与客户沟通的问题,就要改进与客户的交流;要避免对背景事实的误解,就要多了解客户的行业和合同的背景;同样,在遇到这类英文和中文的语言结构问题时,应向上级律师请示。[14]
在准备双语法律文书时,避免所有的歧义或者错误是不可能的,但是,涉外律师应该尽量避免可以避免的歧义或错误。
三、实训要求与过程
总的来说,实训要求学生熟悉中英双语法律文书中的常见错误以及造成这些错误的原因;实训要求学生重视除了歧义之外的中英双语法律文书中的常见错误,并积极地采取措施,发现和纠正这些错误,从而提高涉外法律实务的操作水平和业务能力;实训要求学生加强修正各种中英双语法律文书中的常见错误的练习,并结合之前修正歧义的实训,总结自己的心得体会,灵活运用多种方法,提高涉外法律文书制作的质量。
就具体的实训步骤与构成来讲:首先,学生应在充分理解涉外法律文书中的歧义问题的基础上,研究其他错误存在和可能性。其次,学生应当结合涉外法律文书的制作,查找中英双语法律文书的常见错误,并分析这些错误出现的原因。再次,学生应当针对不同的错误以及不同的文本情况,采取不同的方法,处理这些错误,从而使得有关的涉外法律文书具有更高的质量。复次,学生应当灵活运用多种方法,分析错误、纠正错误,而避免僵硬地将某些方法死记硬背之后适用到涉外法律文书的撰写之中。最后,学生应当在经过多次的练习之后,自己总结有关的心得体会,并争取形成有自我特色的避免与修正涉外法律文书中的错误的方法体系。
四、实训材料
以下是某律师事务所为某外国投资人出具的起草合并与收购中国企业的合同的须知(节选),该法律文件为中英文对照文件,两份文本中也存在各种类型的错误,请综合运用本实训项目以及之前的有关实训项目所讲授的知识,分析上述法律文件的包括歧义在内的错误,并提出解决方案。
【材料一】
Mergers&acquisitions—drafting considerations
General Observations with Respect to the Agreements
When reviewing the sample agreements it is obvious that the agreements for the acquisition of the SOE and the asset purchase are comparatively short and general by“Western”standards.The reason for this is quite simple:Chinese parties,with few exceptions,do not like to use long,wordy agreements.Even in situations where the parties insist on using detailed agreements,it is common practice to use a second,simpler version of the agreement when filing such agreement with the local authorities for approval.In other words,particularly when dealing with agreements that require governmental approval,it is best to stick with simple agreements that cover the key areas of the transaction.A second master agreement,setting out detailed representations and warranties of the parties as well any more complex aspects of the transaction,can be entered into between the parties.The simple version of the agreement,to be used for filing purposes,is then attached to the master agreement as a schedule.The use of a simple agreement for filing purposes will help to speed up the approval process significantly.Parties are reminded that if they choose to do this,it is essential to remember to limit or remove the“entire agreement”clause in both the agreements.Instead,a“best effort”provision in respect of any unsettled issues should be included to allow future amendment of the agreements.
In contrast,the sample WFOE acquisition agreement is typically“Western”in nature in terms of it level of detail and complexity.Acquisitions of WFOEs are typically done at the foreign holding company level,be it a Hong Kong company or a company of another jurisdiction(local PRC holding companies are almost never an issue because of their high capital requirements).Concluding the deal at the foreign holding company level has a number of benefits including tax benefits(if a low tax(Hong Kong)/no tax(Mauritius)jurisdiction is used)and the fact that no filing is required in the PRC to make the change in ownership legitimate.Using the holding company's jurisdiction can also reduce the uncertainty and time required to complete the transfer,as compared to if the transfer takes place at the WFOE level.Needless to say,even if the transaction takes place at the holding company level,the vendor'srepresentations,warranties,and undertakings must address the specific risks associated with the WFOE.For example,to the extent that the off-shore merger calls for the need to change the name of the WFOE in China,either because the merged firm adopts a new name(such as in the case of GlaxoSmithKline)or the WFOE's name in China must be changed as a result of the dissolution of the merging vendor,appropriate approval procedures should be carried out in China to effect such changes.
If the transaction is completed at the WFOE level,approval will have to be sought and the transfer agreement will have to be filed with the appropriate governmental authority.In this case,as discussed above,it is probably advisable that the agreement should be kept simple,so that the approving authorities will accept the agreement for filing.
It is also important to note that while China's entry into the World Trade Organization has liberalized the types of industries foreign companies are permitted to invest in,a number of restrictions continue to exist.Investors should ensure that there are no restrictions on the ownership by a foreign entity in the type of business in which they intend to invest.
Equity vs.Asset Sale
The same considerations apply in China as in other jurisdictions in deciding whether to undertake an equity purchase or an asset purchase.The issue of liability and tax savings will help to determine which method is most appropriate.
Chinese law recognizes the concept of the corporate veil,and thus,an equity purchase,as in any common law jurisdiction,means that the liabilities of the company will remain,notwithstanding the change in ownership.Similarly,a purchase of the assets of the company means that the liability remains with the vendor.Having said this,there are specific areas to watch out for under PRC law in terms of the continuance of liability,even in the case of an asset purchase.For example,where a land use right is to be transferred,it would be prudent to check the potential environmental liabilities associated with the use of the land and the fixtures prior to the completion of the transaction,and ensure that appropriate warranties and indemnities are obtained from the vendor.This is particularly important in transactions involving chemical products,medical products or other lines of business that are environmentally sensitive and will likely generate environmental problems intheir daily operation of the business.
In an equity deal,there is an issue of a pre-emptive right of existing shareholders of the target company.Under the Company Law of the PRC,if a shareholder of the target company intends to transfer its equity to a third party other than the current shareholders or the company proposes to issue new shares,the existing shareholders shall have priority to buy the equity transferred by the shareholder or the shares newly issued by company.Therefore,it is very important to obtain the approval or waiver of existing shareholders as to the pre-emptive right before the purchase is to be made.
In either an equity deal or an asset deal,there are regulatory requirements with which to be complied.In the case of an asset purchase deal,where certain assets to be purchased(such as land and a house)have been legally registered with relevant government authorities,amendment of such registration shall be made to effect proper transfer of title.In an equity deal,such change of equity should first be approved by the relevant approval authority and subsequently be registered with relevant administration departments for industry and commerce.
Tax
Withholding tax will be payable on the capital gains that result from any equity transfer,at a rate of 10%in the case of a transfer of equity by a foreign party.
Parties should also note that the transfer of equity in a joint venture will still be taxable,even if the transaction is conducted outside of the PRC.Thus,if the withholding tax is not paid by the vendor,the taxation authorities will pursue the purchaser and the joint venture entity for the unpaid tax.It is therefore essential that proper assurances or the proper mechanism is put into place to ensure the vendor pays the withholding tax at the time the transaction closes.
Other taxes may also be payable,such as business tax which is imposed on the assignment of intangible assets(at a rate of 5%);however,the taxation authorities generally do not impose payment of the business tax where withholding tax has already been paid.If the transfer is a share transfer,business tax will not be an issue,as there is no business tax on the transfer of shares.In accordance with Guoshuihan[2002]165,the transfer of enterprise equity is to transfer the net assets,creditor's rights,liabilities and employees,and the transfer price of enterprise equity is different from the sale of immovable property or assignment of intangible assets andthus not subject to Business Tax.
In the case of an asset purchase,the purchaser must also be mindful of the fact that in the case of equipment that was imported into the PRC on a tax-free basis(either because it was used to produce goods solely for export or because it was used to produce goods that fit into the PRC's list of Encouraged Industries)certain restrictions apply.Simply stated,any equipment that was imported on a tax free basis may not be sold or transferred generally for a five year period unless special permission is obtained and all the tax that would have been paid on the machinery is paid in full.
In accordance with Article 2 of the Provisional Regulations Concerning Stamp Tax,certain categories of documents shall be regarded as taxable documents,including documents transferring property rights.The documents transferring property rights shall be taxed on 0.05%of the indicated amount;and the taxpayers shall be parties executing the documents.The stamp duty applies to both equity deal documents and asset purchase documents.
In an equity deal(merger),in accordance with Guoshuifa[1997]071,operational losses sustained by the enterprises that have not been made up prior to the equity transfer may be made up on a continuous year-by-year basis after the equity transfer.In this situation,a general principle is:the resulting foreign investment enterprise may use the operational loss incurred by the original State-owned enterprise to carry forward profits generated during the business operation of the foreign investment enterprise on a continuous year-by-year basis within the remaining period within which the operational losses of the enterprises are permitted to be made up(the maximum period for making up losses is five years).However,the resulting foreign investment enterprise may have to pay extra tax for the former State-owned enterprise if the latter had not fully reported its tax liability in the previous years.The Chinese tax authority may pursue the collection of tax in arrears within three years,if necessary,and up to ten years is possible,according to the Law Concerning Administration of Tax Collection.In this situation,a tax due diligence is necessary if the purchase of equity is preferred.
Transaction Methods and Requirements for Merging Entities
Chapter IV of the M&D Rules governs the exchange of shares and the approval and establishment of special purpose vehicles(SPVs),which have become more andmore popular in recent years.
Conditions of Mergers and Acquisitions in Consideration of Shares
Foreign investors who intend to merge or acquire domestic companies in consideration for shares shall be overseas listed companies(excluding SPVs)which have been established lawfully,and the company and its management have not been penalized by any regulatory bodies in the previous three years.
Mergers and acquisitions in consideration for shares refers to shareholders of foreign companies who purchase shares of domestic companies from their shareholders or shares newly allotted by the proposed domestic companies in payment of the shares owned by the shareholders of the foreign companies or new shares allotted by the foreign companies.
Target shares of domestic companies shall meet the following requirements:
Be lawfully owned without restrictions on transfer;
The ownership shall be free from disputes and restrictions,including chargeable rights;
Overseas shares subject to exchange shall be lawfully tradable at open stock exchanges(excluding counter-trade markets)(not applicable to SPVs);and
Prices of the shares subject to exchange shall be stable in the year preceding the transaction(not applicable to SPVs).
Additional Rules Governing Mergers and Acquisitions in Consideration for Shares
Mergers and acquisitions in consideration for shares shall be subject to approval by the Ministry of Commerce.In addition to the documents listed in Point 3(Relevant Regulations and Approval Procedures)above,the following documents are required:
Documents illustrating changes of equity rights and key assets of the target domestic company in the previous year;
Reports from M&A consultants;
Certificates of incorporation and identity documents provided by both parties and their shareholders;
Documents illustrating equity rights of the foreign investor's shareholders as wellas a list of shareholders holding more than 5%of the foreign investor's shares;
Articles of Association of the foreign investor as well as documents illustrating external guarantees made;and
The latest audited financial reports of the foreign investor and reports on shares transferred in the past six months.
Additional Rules Governing SPVs
SPV is defined as an overseas company under direct or indirect control of a Chinese company or natural person for the purpose of listing a domestic company actually owned by the Chinese company or natural person in a foreign country or region.Listing overseas through SPVs shall be subject to approval by the securities regulatory bodies under the State Council.
Documents to be filed with the Ministry of Commerce to incorporate an SPV:
Application letter for incorporation,providing company's name,registered capital,investment values,scope of business,terms of business,company's structure and allocation of equity rights;
Articles of Association of the foreign company as well as the related agreements or contracts;
Opinions given by the foreign exchange departments concerned after examining the sources of foreign currencies to be used in foreign investments(only applicable if purchase or remittance of foreign currencies from China is required);
Business licence of the domestic company and certificates or permits required by laws;
Identity documents of the actual controller(s)of the SPV;
Business plan for listing the SPV overseas;
Assessment reports of M&A consultants in respect of the future price of the SPV's shares in its IPO;and
Other documents required by laws and decisions of the State Council.
In addition to the documents listed in 5.2 above,an SPV merging or acquiring a domestic company shall file the following documents for approval:
Approval documents and certificates of investments in incorporation of an overseas company as an SPV;
Foreign Exchange Registration Form for Investments Overseas in an SPV; Identity documents of the actual controller(s)of the SPV or business certificate and Articles of Association;
Business plan for listing the SPV overseas;and
Assessment reports of M&A consultants in respect of the future price of the SPV's shares in its IPO.
Should there be an overseas company holding equity rights of an SPV as the key listing entity,the following documents are also required:
Business certificate and Articles of Association of the overseas company; and
Detailed descriptions of the arrangement and exchange rates for transacting the equity rights of the target domestic company between the SPV and proposing overseas company.
Disclosure of Connected Transactions
Under Article 15 of the“M&D Regulations”,parties of proposed mergers and acquisitions shall declare any connected parties in the transactions.Should there be any two parties under the control of the same controller(s),the parties shall disclose the actual controller(s)to the authorities concerned.The parties shall also explain whether the purpose and result of the proposed merger and acquisition are undertaken at a fair market price.The parties are not allowed to avoid the above requirements by establishing a trust,holding the related rights on behalf of another party or taking any other measures.
【材料二】
合并和收购——起草须知
关于协议的一般看法
在审查协议样本时,按照“西方”标准,收购国有企业协议或资产购买协议显然比较简短和笼统。其理由很简单,除少数例外,中方不喜欢采用冗长的协议。即使在各当事人坚持采用详细协议的情况下,将这些协议呈交地方当局批准时通常采用协议的第二份较短版本。换句话说,尤其是当处理需要政府批准的协议时,最好坚持采用包含交易主要内容的简单协议。各当事人可以共同签订列明各当事人的声明与保证及交易的更复杂内容的第二份主协议。作上报用的协议简单文本可作为主协议附件。上报采用简单协议将有助于大大加速批准程序。各当事人要注意,如它们选择这样做,必须记得在两份协议内均对“全部协议”条款加以限制或将之删去,但须就任何未决问题加入“最大努力”条款,以利今后对协议作出修订。
对比之下,就详细与复杂程度而言,收购外商独资企业的协议样本的性质典型“西化”。收购外商独资企业一般在外国控股公司(不论是香港公司还是另外管辖区的公司)(当地中国控股公司由于其庞大的资金需要量而几乎从来不须考虑)的层次上进行。在外国控股公司的层次上达成交易有许多好处,其中包括税务优惠(如利用低税(香港)/免税(毛里求斯)管辖区)及在中国境内使所有权的改变合法化时毋须提交申请。与在外商独资公司的层次上进行转让相比较,利用控股公司的管辖区还可以减低完成转让的不确定性及所需时间。不言而喻,即使交易在控股公司的层面上进行,卖方的声明、保证与承诺必须涉及与外商独资企业相关联的各种特定风险。例如,倘国外合并要求变更中国境内的外商独资企业名称,不论这种要求是由于合并商行采用新的名称(如GlaxoSmithKline)还是因合并卖方解散而必须变更中国境内的外商独资企业名称,均必须在中国完成适当的批准手续,以实现上述变更。
如交易在外商独资企业的层次上完成,需要获得批准,而转让协议须提交政府主管机构。在这种情况下,如前文所述,宜使协议保持简单明了,以便批准机构将之接纳归档。
另外,还必须注意,虽然中国加入世界贸易组织已经放宽外国公司获准投资的行业类型,但仍然存在若干限制。投资者必须确保在它们有意投资的行业类别内,外国实体所有权未受到任何限制,这点亦是至关重要的。
出售股权与出售资产之间的对比
在决定是购买股权还是购买资产时,其他管辖区需要考虑的因素亦同样适用于中国。债务与税收节减问题将有助于确定何种方法最适宜。
中国法律认可“公司面纱”的概念。因此,正如在任何普通法管辖区购买股权意味着尽管所有权已经改变,公司的债务将继续存在。同样,购买公司资产意味着债务归于卖方。有鉴于此,就债务的持续而言,即使是购买资产,在中国法律下亦有一些具体问题需要注意。例如,转让土地使用权,成交前必须检查与土地使用权及固定装置相关联的潜在环保责任,并从卖方取得适当保证与赔偿保证。这点对涉及化学制品、医疗产品的交易或涉及环保敏感及在其日常营运中很可能产生环保问题的其他行业的交易尤为重要。
股权交易均有一个目标公司现有股东的优先认购权问题。根据中国公司法,如目标公司的一名股东有意将其股权转让予公司现有股东以外的第三方或公司建议发行新股,现有股东有购买该股东转让的股权或公司发行的新股的优先权。因此,在进行购买前必须从现有股东取得其对优先认购权的同意或放弃。
股权交易或资产交易均须遵守一些规范性规定。就购买资产的交易而言,若拟购买的某些资产(如土地与房屋)已经依法向有关政府当局登记,则须将上述登记修改,以完成所有权的妥善转让。在股权交易中,上述股权变化须首先经有关批准机构批准,然后向有关工商业管理部门登记。
税项
任何股权转让产生的资本收益均须缴付预提税(如外方转让股权,税率为百分之十)。
各当事人还应注意,合资企业的股权转让将仍然在应税之列,即使交易于中国境外进行。因此,如卖方未缴付预提税,税务机构将向买方及合资企业实体追讨未支付税款。由于上述原因,必须有妥善保证或适当机制确保成交时卖方支付预提税。
还可能必须缴付其他税项,如向无形资产转让征收的营业税(按百分之五税率),但凡已经缴付预提税,税务机构一般不再征收营业税。如转让属于股权转让,营业税将不成为问题,因为股权转让无须缴付营业税。根据(国税函[2002]165号)文件,转让企业股权乃指转让净资产、债权人的权利、债务及雇员,而企业股权的转让价格有别于出售不动产或转让无形资产,因而不需要缴付营业税。
就购买资产而言,买方还必须注意某些限制条件适用于免税进口到中国的设备(之所以免税是因为设备用于生产专供出口的货物或用以生产属于鼓励类的货物)。简而言之,凡免税进口的设备,五年之内一般不得予以出售或转让,除非获得特别许可及应支付的税款悉数缴清。
根据《印花税暂行条例》第2条,某些种类文件须被视为应税文件,其中包括产权转让文件。产权转让文件按所标明金额的0.05%征税,而纳税人为签署文件的当事人。印花税适用于股权交易文件及资产买卖文件。
在股权交易(合并)中,根据(国税发[1997]071号)文件,如企业蒙受的营业亏损未于股权转让前予以弥补,可以于股权转让后逐年持续予以弥补。在此种情况下,一般原则为:存续的外商投资企业可以利用原国有企业引致的营业亏损,将外商投资企业营运期间产生的利润于企业营业亏损弥补允许年限的剩余期限内(亏损弥补最长年限为五年)逐年不断予以结转。但是,如前国有企业未充分申报其先前年度的纳税义务,存续的外商投资企业可能需要为它缴付额外税款。根据《税收征收管理法》,中国税务当局有权于三年内追缴滞纳税款,如有需要可延长至十年。在此种情况下,如选择购买股权,则进行税务审慎调查十分必要。
交易方式与并购主体要求
在《并购规定》第四章中,特别就近些年的热点换股以及特殊目的公司的审批和设立作出了规定。
以股权作为支付手段并购的条件
以股权作为支付手段并购境内公司的境外投资者应为合法设立,且公司及其管理层最近三年未受到监管机构的处罚的境外上市公司(特殊目的公司除外)。
以股权作为支付手段并购指境外公司的股东以其持有的境外公司股权,或者境外公司以其增发的股份,作为支付手段,购买境内公司股东的股权或者境内公司增发股份的行为。
被收购的境内股权应符合以下条件:
合法持有并无转让条件限制;
所有权无争议并且为设定质押等任何权利限制;
用于换股的境外股权在境外公开合法的证券交易市场(柜台交易市场除外)挂牌交易(不适用于特殊目的公司);
用于换股的境外股权最近一年交易价格稳定(不适用于特殊目的公司)。
以股权作为支付手段并购的额外审批条件
以股权作为支付手段并购要求提交商务部审批。除报送前述第3点提到的文件以外,还需报送以下文件:
被收购境内公司最近一年股权变动和重大资产变动情况的说明文件;
并购顾问的报告;
双方及其股东的开业证明或身份证明文件;
外国投资者的股东持股情况说明和持有外国投资者5%以上股权的股东名录;
外国投资者的章程和对外担保的情况说明;
外国投资者最近的经审计的财务报告和最近半年的股票交易情况报告。
关于特殊目的公司的特别规定
特殊目的公司指的是中国境内公司或自然人为实现以其实际拥有的境内公司权益在境外上市而直接或间接控制的境外公司。通过特殊目的公司境外上市交易,必须通过国务院证券监督管理机构批准。
特殊目的公司的设立需向商务部提交以下文件:
设立申请书(主要内容包括开办企业的名称、注册资本、投资金额、经营范围、经营期限、组织形式、股权结构等);
境外企业章程及相关协议或合同;
外汇主管部门出具的境外投资外汇资金来源审查意见(需购汇或从境内汇出外汇的);
国内企业营业执照以及法律法规要求具备的相关资格或资质证明;
特殊目的公司最终控制人的身份证明文件;
特殊目的公司境外上市商业计划书;
并购顾问就特殊目的公司未来境外上市的股票发行价格所作的评估报告;
法律法规及国务院决定要求的其他文件。
特殊目的公司以股权作为支付手段并购境内企业的,除须报送上述5.2条规定的文件以外,还需呈报以下文件供审批:
设立特殊目的公司时的境外投资开办企业批准文件和证书;特殊目的公司境外投资外汇登记表;
特殊目的公司最终控制人的身份证明文件或开业证明、章程;
特殊目的公司境外上市商业计划书;
并购顾问就特殊目的公司未来境外上市的股票发行价格所作的评估报告;
如果以持有特殊目的公司权益的境外公司作为境外上市主体,则还需呈报以下文件:
境外公司的开业证明和章程;
特殊目的公司与该境外公司之间就被并购的境内公司股权所作的交易安排和折价方法的详细说明。
关联关系披露要求
《并购规定》第十五条规定,并购当事人应对并购各方是否存在关联关系进行说明,如果有两方属于同一个实际控制人,则当事人应向审批机关披露其实际控制人,并就并购目的和评估结果是否符合市场公允价值进行解释。当事人不得以信托、代持或其他方式规避前述要求。
五、延伸思考与习题
1.在歧义之外,还有哪些常见的,出现在中英双语法律文书中的错误?
2.出现中英双语法律文书中的常见错误的原因是什么?
3.如何避免和修正因粗心所造成的中英双语法律文书的错误?
4.如何避免和修正出于对中文或英文原文的误解而导致的法律文书中的错误?
5.如何避免和修正出于对英文原文的误解而导致的法律文书中的错误?
6.如何避免和修正由于和客户沟通有误而导致的中英双语法律文书中的错误?
7.如何避免和修正由于对背景事实的误解而导致的中英双语法律文书中的错误?
8.如何避免由于中文语言的结构问题所造成的中英双语法律文书中的错误?
9.如何避免由于英文语言的结构问题所造成的中英双语法律文书中的错误?
10.请谈一谈综合运用各种方法,避免中英双语法律文书中的常见错误的心得体会。
【注释】
[1]参见姚泽金.海事与涉外法律文书写作.北京:中国法制出版社,2002:1.
[2]参见鲁宝.论法律文书的程序价值.法制与社会,2008(6).
[3]参见王旭红.高校“法律文书”课程教学方法探讨.辽宁工业大学学报,2008(2).
[4]很多人认为要做好涉外法律文书外语好就万事大吉,然而这是一种误解。事实上,母语文学知识很重要!因为不掌握这一知识,就无法顺利地从事涉外法律文书的翻译工作,更无法制作出优秀的中英文对照法律文书。
[5]陶博,龚柏华.法律英语:中英双语法律文书制作.上海:复旦大学出版社,2004:65-69.
[6]See Lawrence E.Filson,The Legislative Drafter's Desk Reference,Washington,D.C.: Congressional Quarterly,1992,p.121.
[7]See Rupert Cross,Statutory Interpretation,3rd edition,Oxford University Press,pp.83-84.
[8]陶博,罗国强.法律英语:中英双语法律文书中的句法歧义.上海:复旦大学出版社,2008:1-3.
[9]陶博,罗国强.法律英语:中英双语法律文书中的句法歧义.上海:复旦大学出版社,2008:103-128.
[10]陶博,龚柏华.法律英语:中英双语法律文书制作.上海:复旦大学出版社,2004:140.
[11]同上书,第138页。
[12]陶博,罗国强.法律英语:中英双语法律文书中的句法歧义.上海:复旦大学出版社,2008:204-224.
[13]陶博,罗国强.法律英语:中英双语法律文书中的句法歧义.上海:复旦大学出版社,2008:226-245.
[14]陶博,罗国强.法律英语:中英双语法律文书中的句法歧义.上海:复旦大学出版社,2008:295-305.
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