古代科举Im perial Exam ination System in Ancient China
1什么是科举考试?
What is the Im perial Exam ination System?
One of the great innovations of ancient China was to recruit officials through open examinations．This idea even influenced theWest in their formation of civil servant systems in modern times．
In the Shang Dynasty(1600 BC－1046 BC)，aristocrats took on main positions in the court and served as officials in government departments．The enfeoffment system was also implemented at this time．During the Western Zhou Dynasty，rulers attached great importance to the blood relationship based on patriarch principles and set up the social estate system accordingly．During the Warring States Period，the feudal landlord class adopted the system of granting titlesof nobility according tomeritorious services performed in battle fields．In addition，aristocrats extensively accepted small and middle landlords or scholars as their family tutors(门客) in favor to the consolidation and development of the feudal regime．
In the Han Dynasty(206 BC－200 AD)，ministers，high-ranking officials，and local authorities recommended to the imperial court talented and virtuous people．The court would offer them government posts or promote them from lower positions to higher ones．In addition，emperors would directly employ some people to be officials，working in the court; local authorities would also employ persons and appoint them to work in local government departments．
Since the Sui Dynasty(581－618)，the system of imperial examinationswas gradually established．Unlike former recruitment，the imperial examination system allowed the participation of people from all social stratums，regardless of family background or recommendations．Allmen，virtuous and healthy，could take the exam．
During the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，appointments to government positions，however，wentmainly to aristocrats rather than to people who passed the civil service examination．Only ten percent of government officials were selected from the imperial examinations． There were two kinds of examinations during the Tang Dynasty．One kind involved Confucian studies and the Five Classics; the other Daoism．Exam questions had many sections: interviews，writing from memory，answering questions，composition writing，and poetry．Other subjects included history，law，calligraphy，and mathematics．
In the Song Dynasty(960－1279)，the examination was based entirely on the Confucian Classics．Over fifty percent of government officials were recruited from the civil service examination．The candidates had to memorize the Five Classics，interpret passages，master their literary style，and use Confucian philosophy to interpret the Classics and construct political advice．The Daoist examination was totally discarded．
2你对科举考试还了解多少?
How much more do you know about the Imperial Exam ination System?
Imperial examinations were done openly．In order to ensure objectivity in evaluation，candidates were identified by number rather than by name，and exam papers were rewritten by a third person prior to being evaluated．This endeavor was to cover the candidates' handwriting．Candidates were confined during examinations．As for examiners，they were usually asked to live together in a place where any contactswere cut off from the outsideworld，and their familymemberswere notallowed to sit for the exam．Candidates had to go through provincial and metropolitan examinations first．These two examinations would eliminate most of the candidates．Only the lucky few could take part in the final examination．The emperor himself presided over this examination that took place in the imperial palace．When the examination was over，the court announced the list of successful candidates．Winnerswould be granted with titles and escorted in a parade by palace guards of honor．At that time，people would go out into the streets to join the celebration ofwinners．
During the Qing Dynasty(1616－1911)，the degree typeswere classified as follows:
Shengyuan(生员)，quasi-bachelor's degree，administered at the local level each year．
Juren(举人) quasi-master's degree，administered at the provincial level every three years．
Jinshi(进士)，quasi-doctoral degree，administered in the capital every three years．
The degree types are labeled as“quasi-”degrees not to denigrate their content，but to pointout thatwhile theymay roughly correspond to Western conceptions of bachelor，master and doctoral degrees，they had different contents，differentmethods of instruction，and very different social functions．
Notes:①objectivity客观性②confine限制③metropolitan大都市④quasi类似⑤administer管理⑥denigrate诋毁⑦conception概念
3科举制度的优点和缺点是什么?
Whatwere the advantages and disadvantages of the Imperial Examination System?
Like all other systems，the examination system had its advantages and disadvantages．On the positive side，the exam had broadened the government base by drawing officials from all levels of society．Theoretically at least，itwas entirely possible for aman of the humblest origin，by passing the specified examinations，to rise in power，wealth，and prestige．More than anything else，the examination system accounted for a large degree of socialmobility．
Second，the civil service examination system was adopted for the purpose to find the right man for the right task; nothing could be more objective than a test impartially administered．Many great statesmen in China were products of this system．
Third，the examination system brought to mind the importance of education and learning and thus indirectly raised the cultural level of the country as a whole．In ancient China，themost respected had always been the scholars while landlords，merchants，or industrialists in other countriesmight be themen of greater prestige．
However，only a small fraction(about 5 percent) of examinees passed and received titles．Those who failed to pass did not lose wealth or local social standing; they served，without the benefit of state appointments，as teachers，patrons of the arts，andmanagersof local projects，such as irrigation works，schools，or charitable foundations．
Well，those who criticized this system could point out that the examination was a test of literary learning which should not be used as the sole criterion to judge a man's true ability．A good administrator wasmore often a man of the world than a man learned in Confucian classics or skillful in writing poetry．Moreover，while the examination system might have increased social mobility，it did not end social stratification．A peasant's son might pass the examination and thus be accepted as one of the social elite，but this did not help the rest of the peasants who were still regarded as lower class．
Furthermore，except for the wealthy few，who could afford to spend years of study just to prepare for the examinations? The so-called democratic look of the examination system was perhaps more appearance than reality．Critics of this system were anxious to point out that the over-emphasis on literary learning at the expense of other intellectual pursuits had done great damage to other areas of learning of equal importance．This accounted for，at least in part，China's lagging behind some other countries in the field of science and technology，despite its achievements in the humanities．Society did not attach much importance to the study of natural science and offered no reward for its development．People generally looked down uponmanualwork，and there was no intellectual tradition outside the study of humanities．
4你对唐朝以后的学校了解多少?
How much do you know about the ancient schools after the Tang Dynasty?
During the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，the country entered a prosperous period．There were twenty types of central schools in the Tang Dynasty that included Great Schools(太学)，Si Men Schools(四门学)，Book Schools(书学)，and Mathematics Schools(算学)．In addition，there were many more types of local schools across the country．However，the Tang Dynasty attached great importance to the imperial examination rather than schools themselves．So schools tended to have students study the samematerial designated to examinations．
Zhao Kuangyin(赵匡胤)，the founder of the Song Dynasty(960－1127)，followed scholar-first politics．Imperial examinations during the Song Dynasty were virtually identical to those of the Tang Dynasty．Both official and private schools co-existed，with the official schools being divided into central and local schools．Local official schools included the Great School and Law Schools(律学)．The most common private schools included the Enlightenment Schools(蒙学) and Dong Schools(冬学)．A new type of school emerged in the Song Dynasty．It was called the Academy of Classical Learning(书院)．Students in this school studied classical texts on their own，and teachers used their own teachingmaterials to teach students individually．
Schools in the Yuan Dynasty(1206－1368) consisted of national schools，local schools，academies of classical learning and“She schools”(社学)．There were also a few special schools in the Yuan Dynasty，including Mongolian Characters Schools．
Schools in the Ming Dynasty were similar to those of the Song and the Yuan dynasties．School regulations were very strict，and thosewho broke them were severely punished．There were three levels of imperial exami-nations in the Ming Dynasty that included the township exam(乡试)，the national exam(会试)and the palace exam(殿试)．
In the Qing Dynasty(1616－1911)，official schools were the same as those of the Ming Dynasty．Some special schoolswere set up for those who had imperial lineage．Math Schools，astronomy Schools，and medicine Schoolswere also included．Private academies of classical learning turned into official schools and large organizations．Some of these schools focused on preparation for the imperial examinations，and some others on academic research programs related to classical literature and history．In the Qing Dynasty，foreign missionaries came to China．They brought to the Chinese people mathematics，astronomy，theWestern calendar，geography，and firearms．These missionaries also translated The Four Books，The Five Classics，and many other classical texts into Latin and other languages for the purpose of introducing them to the Western World．
Notes:①designate指定②be identical to完全相似的③enlightenment启发④academy高等学校⑤be similar to类似于
5什么是“四书五经”?
What are“The Four Books and the Five Classics”?
Confucius is the most famous sage of China．Through his followers，Confucius founded the principle basis of the Chinese tradition of ethics that has deeply influenced Chinese society and culture．
The Han rulers founded a unified dynasty．They felt the need of a philosophy that could guide and strengthen their rule．Seventy years after the founding of the Han Dynasty，Emperor Wudi(汉武帝) called on scholars to present suggestions for effective government．Dong Zhongshu(董仲舒) suggested that Confucianism bemade the official orthodox philosophy，and that all other schools of thought be discredited．From then on，in the civil service examination system of ancient China，it was compulsory for candidates to study Confucianism for imperial government positions．
“Si Shu Wu Jing”means“The Four Books and the Five Classics(‘四书五经’)．”The Four Books are as follows．
The Great Learning(《大学》) is one section of The Classic of Rites(《礼记》)．The subject is self-cultivation as the key to the good society，giving a funda-mental introduction to Confucianism．
The Doctrineof theMean(《中庸》) is the name of another section in The Classic of Rites．This book looks atmoderation in man's conduct which enables him to live in harmony with the universe．
The Analects of Confucius(《论语》) is a collection of sayings of Confucius and incidents in his life，compiled by his disciples．
The Book of Mencius(《孟子》)consists of the sayings of Mencius，Confucius'great successor who was born about 100 years after Confucius'death and lived from 372 to? 289 BC．This book was probably written by Mencius'disciples．
The Five Classics consist of:
The Classic of Poetry(The Book of Odes or Songs，《诗经》)，a collection of ceremonial and folk verse，probably of the early Zhou period．These poems are actually songs based onmusical types and have had a profound influence on the later development of poetry．
The Classic of History or Documents(《书经》) is short sectionsofmaterial of varying date and authenticity ascribed to early sovereigns and officials．
The Book of Changes(《易经》) is a book used for divination built on the oracle bones．Represented by the bagua diagram(八卦) of whole and broken lines，it combines，in one interrelated whole，all of human life and fate and the physical elements of the world in symbolic form．
The Classic of Rites(《礼记》) is a compilation of articles that explain ancient social forms and ceremonies．Confucian scholars，from themiddle Zhou Dynasty down to the first part of the Han Dynasty，wrote these when they imparted The Rites．
The Spring and Autumn Annals(《春秋》) are chronicles of Confucius'state of Lu covering the years from 722 to 479 BC，with appended commentaries．
6古代社会有哪四个等级?
What were the four classes in the ancient Chinese society?
In ancient China the Chinese spoke of their society as composed of four classes: the scholars，the farmers，the artisans and themerchants．The scholarswere given the highest status because they performed what Chinese regarded as the most important function: the transmission of an ancient heritage and the personification of Chinese virtues．The farmers’standing was second only to the scholars because they were primary producers，feeding and clothing the nation．The artisans processed what the farmers had produced，and their function was not regarded as an essential as that of the farmers．At the bottom of the social scale were themerchants whom the Chinese regarded as exploiters，making profits from what others had produced or processed．
Some 2，300 years ago，Mencius advanced a classification of the Chinese people．He believed that in an ideal society therewere two kindsof people: the educated who ruled and the uneducated who were ruled．Though Mencius was only speculating on what an ideal society should be，the Chinese applied his theory until modern times．
Notes:①be composed of由……组成②artisan工匠;技工③transmission输送④personification人格化⑤exploiter剥削者⑥make profit获利
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