肿瘤细胞进入继发部位后并不意味着转移一定形成,只有当侵入继发部位的肿瘤细胞增殖形成转移瘤灶并进行性长大才真正实现肿瘤转移。如原发肿瘤一样,当转移瘤灶增长到一定程度时,新生血管网也随之形成。转移瘤灶的肿瘤细胞也可以通过脱落、侵袭进入循环系统产生二级转移瘤灶。
肿瘤在继发部位的增殖是建立新的转移灶的必要条件。多种生长因子在肿瘤增殖的调控过程中发挥功能。在一些肿瘤向恶性转化的过程中,它们对外源性生长因子的依赖逐渐减少。例如,黑色素瘤细胞能够产生多种阳性的生长调控因子。其中一种阳性生长调控因子就是基础成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF),它是由黑色素瘤细胞产生的并且作为自分泌生长因子发挥功能。另外一种可以促进肿瘤生长的自分泌生长因子是白介素-8(IL-8)。而可以调节肿瘤转移的旁分泌阳性生长因子是胰岛素样生长因子-Ⅰ(IGF-Ⅰ)和表皮生长因子(EGF)等。
转移到骨的肿瘤细胞也能够影响骨组织。这种效应可以刺激成骨细胞形成新生骨,也能够刺激破骨细胞导致溶骨性骨转移。骨转移的生长可以受到骨髓和成骨细胞释放的生长因子的影响,也可以受到破骨细胞在骨吸收过程中释放的骨基质产物的影响。骨髓衍生的生长因子和细胞因子包括转化生长因子-β(TGF-β)、胰岛素样生长因子-Ⅰ(IGF-Ⅰ)和胰岛素样生长因子-Ⅱ(IGF-Ⅱ)等。它们在骨中表达水平较高。已经有报道表明胰岛素样生长因子-Ⅰ、Ⅱ可以影响结直肠癌、乳腺癌和前列腺癌细胞系的生长。而成骨细胞也可以产生生长因子,影响转移瘤的生长。成骨细胞还能够产生基础成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF)和白介素-6(IL-6)等。前列腺癌的生长是受到基础成纤维细胞生长因子刺激的。前列腺癌细胞还可以表达白介素6受体,因此能够对成骨细胞产生的白介素6作出反应。
肿瘤转移是引起肿瘤患者死亡的主要原因之一。良性肿瘤通常不转移,因此易于进行手术切除而使患者存活。而恶性肿瘤则是指肿瘤已经侵入并且破坏邻近组织结构或者已经播散到远处组织器官,并形成继发性肿瘤。通过侵袭方式进入循环系统的肿瘤细胞大多数在短期内死亡,导致肿瘤细胞死亡的原因可来自肿瘤细胞本身或来自宿主的环境因素。只有具有高度转移潜能的肿瘤细胞才能逃逸种种易损因素,通过循环系统到达继发器官并增殖生长形成转移癌灶。大约30%新诊断的实体瘤患者都可以检测到其转移瘤的存在,即其已经发生远处转移。而另外有20%的患者只能检测到其原发肿瘤,事实上他们也已经存在隐蔽的转移灶。因此,对于肿瘤患者来说,发展有效控制肿瘤转移的策略将是一个最令人振奋的消息。
恶性肿瘤的转移主要通过三种途径:体腔内种植、淋巴道播散、血道播散。当肿瘤侵入天然体腔时就会发生肿瘤的体腔内种植转移。通过这种方式转移的一个很好例子就是卵巢癌的播散。卵巢恶性肿瘤具有在腹膜腔内任何地点进行种植的能力,而该种植瘤通常只生长在体腔表面,并不侵袭实质组织和腹腔内的器官。癌则是典型通过淋巴系统进行远处转移的,而肉瘤则易于发生血道转移。事实上在淋巴系统和血管系统之间存在大量的联系网络,所以几乎所有肿瘤都存在淋巴道和血道两种转移途径。在一些病例中,肿瘤细胞可以横穿淋巴结并最终到达血管中,这些血管中的肿瘤细胞随着静脉流动并回流至新生肿瘤的部位(静脉较动脉容易穿透)。因为所有的门管区静脉内的血液都回流至肝脏,而所有腔静脉的血液则回流至肺,所以不难理解为什么肝脏和肺脏是最容易发生继发性转移瘤的部位。
有证据表明,不同来源的肿瘤细胞有其容易发生转移的特定器官,即肿瘤转移的器官选择性,如前列腺癌、甲状腺癌多转移到骨,皮肤黑色素瘤90%转移定位于肺。分子生物学研究认为肿瘤转移的器官选择性可能是与肿瘤细胞表型的差异性、继发器官微环境的差异及影响肿瘤细胞与继发器官脉管内皮细胞的细胞外结合因素、化学趋化因子、脏器相关免疫状态等因素有关。骨是最容易发生肿瘤细胞转移的部位之一。一些肿瘤,如乳腺癌、前列腺癌和肺癌等的原发肿瘤最易转移至骨。事实上,90%死于乳腺癌的患者都发生肿瘤骨转移。骨中的转移组织导致患者严重的疼痛和生活质量的严重下降。目前还没有针对肿瘤骨转移的特效治疗方法。
转移瘤的分布可以部分通过局部静脉回流形式进行预测。大多数转移瘤发生在肿瘤细胞从原发肿瘤脱离后遇到的第一个毛细血管床。然而,原发肿瘤细胞也可以转移到不可预测的远处组织器官从而形成转移灶。而乳腺癌、前列腺癌和肺癌高比例的骨转移则说明了肿瘤细胞形成转移灶具有一定的器官特异性。于是,人们提出了三种类型的肿瘤细胞归巢机制。第一种就是选择性生长,在这种机制的控制下,肿瘤细胞从血管中广泛渗出,但是仅仅选择性地在具有合适生长因子和细胞外基质环境的器官中生长。第二种机制是选择性地黏附在肿瘤细胞归巢器官内皮腔表面上。第三种主要机制则是循环中的肿瘤细胞通过趋化作用运动到产生可溶性趋化因子的器官。研究者已经报道,所有这三种机制在肿瘤实验转移模型中都发挥重要作用。
解剖学引流并不能完全解释转移在特异性器官的系统分布。例如,肌肉的血管十分丰富,它和肾脏可以接受25%的心血管输出,然而其却很少发生继发性转移。因此,Paget提出了转移的趋向性是肿瘤细胞(种子)与良好的器官环境(土壤)之间相互作用的结果引起的。所有以上这些现象都证明了这一观点,即肿瘤的播散是一个非常复杂的过程,其结果是依赖肿瘤细胞与宿主细胞之间的众多相互作用来决定的。转移的过程是一个动态的和错综复杂的过程。它可以包含多个同时发生的步骤,也可能其中一个步骤是由其他步骤演变而来的。当肿瘤在原发部位生长之后,肿瘤细胞必须:①从实体肿瘤上分离下来;②侵入到周围的正常组织;③渗透到血管中;④在血液循环中以单个细胞或成簇的形式存活下来;⑤在新组织部位的毛细血管床停留下来;⑥通过血管壁进行外渗;⑦侵入到周围宿主组织;⑧在新寄居的器官生长成实体肿瘤;⑨再次重新开始以上过程。在整个过程中,肿瘤细胞必须逃避免疫监视机制,失去对正常生长控制的反应性,促进血管生成。直径大于2mm的实体瘤生长主要依赖新生血管的形成。血管生成不但是肿瘤细胞从原发肿瘤部位脱离并进入到血液循环系统的前提条件,而且在继发部位转移灶的扩展过程中也发挥重要作用。肿瘤进展和转移过程中的血管生成与肿瘤的恶性程度具有一定相关性。
人们通常认为肿瘤的恶性进程包括遗传学改变和导致细胞出现持久恶性表型改变的聚集。基因组的不稳定性可以引起肿瘤的异质性,并最终导致新形成的克隆出现新的表型;未知的微进化选择压力使选择性克隆具有更加增强的恶性潜能。这些具有不同侵袭和转移能力细胞群体的持续出现成为肿瘤治疗的一个巨大障碍。通过对恶性肿瘤遗传学改变的机制进行研究而获得的信息表明,其恶性程度的进展可以用来评估其遗传因素的风险性、早期诊断、预后和治疗。针对肿瘤侵袭、转移中的一些关键环节专门设计调节阻断手段,可望达到遏止肿瘤侵袭、转移的目的。具体手段是肿瘤侵袭、转移的基因治疗,血管生成抑制剂抗肿瘤侵袭、转移,细胞黏附因子抑制剂与抗肿瘤侵袭、转移,金属蛋白酶抑制剂与抗肿瘤侵袭、转移等。总之,肿瘤的侵袭、转移是一个多步骤的复杂过程,人们对肿瘤侵袭、转移的发生和机制的不断深入了解,必将对设计和寻找有效的抗肿瘤药物起到巨大的推动作用,为攻克癌症提供新的思路和措施。
(汪 洋 邵淑娟 詹启敏)
主要参考文献
[1]TANIGAWA N,AMAYA H,Matsumura M,et al.Association of tumour vasculature with tumor progression and overall survival of patients with non-early gastric carcinomas.Br J Cancer,1997,75:566-571.
[2]GASPARINI G.Clinical significance of the determination of important angiogenesis in human breast cancer:update of the biological background and overview of the vicenza studies.Eur J Cancer,1996,32A:2485-2493.
[3]HAGEMANN T,ROBINSON S C,THOMPSON R G,et al.Ovarian cancer cell-derived migration inhibitory factor enhances tumor growth,progression,and angiogenesis.Mol CancerTher.2007,6(7):1993-2002.
[4]HEIMANN R,FERGUSON D,POWERS C,et al.Angiogenesis as a predictor of long term survival for patients with node-negative breast cancer.J Natl Cancer Inst,1996,88:1764-1769.
[5]LEWIS C E,HUGHES R.Microenvironmental factors regulating macrophage function in breast tumours:hypoxia and angiopoietin-2.Breast Cancer Res,2007,9(3):209.
[6]DA M X,WU X T,GUO T K,et al.Clinical significance of telomerase activity in peritoneal lavage fluid from patients with gastric cancer and its relationship with cellular proliferation.World J Gastroenterol,2007,13(22):3122-3127.
[7]KYZAS P A,GELEFF S,BATISTATOU A,et al.Evidence for lymphangiogenesis and its prognostic implications in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.J Pathol,2005,206(2):170-177.
[8]CHEN X,SU Y,FINGLETON B,et al.Increased plasma MMP9in integrin alpha 1-null mice enhances lung metastasis of colon carcinoma cells.Int J Cancer,2005,116(1):52-61.
[9]LEE Y K,SO I S,LEE S C,et al.Suppression of distant pulmonary metastasis of MDA-MB 435 human breast carcinoma established in mammary fat pads of nude mice by retroviral-mediated TIMP-2gene transfer.J Gene Med,2005,7(2):145-157.
[10]FULGENZI G,GRACIOTTI L,FARONATO M.et al.Human neoplastic mesothelial cells express voltage-gated sodium channels involved in cell motility.Int J Biochem Cell Biol,2006,38(7):1146-1159.
[11]KOPFSTEIN L,CHRISTOFORI G.Metastasis:cell-autonomous mechanisms versus contributions by the tumor microenvironment.Cell Mol Life Sci,2006,63(4):449-468.
[12]XUE C,WYCKOFF J,LIANG F,et al.Epidermal growth factor receptor overexpression results in increased tumor cell motility in vivo coordinately with enhanced intravasation and metastasis.Cancer Res,2006,66(1):192-197.
[13]HANAHAN D,WEINBERG R A.The hallmarks of cancer.Cell,2000,100:57-70.
[14]MULLER A,HOMEY B,SOTO H,et al.Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis.Nature,2001,410:50-56.
[15]TAN X,EGAMI H,NOZAWA F,et al.Analysis of the invasion-metastasis mechanism in pancreatic cancer:involvement of plasmin cascade proteins in the invasion of pancreatic cancer cells.Int J Oncol,2006,28(2):369-374.
[16]KAIFI J T,YEKEBAS E F,SCHURR P.et al.Tumor-cell homing to lymph nodes and bone marrow and CXCR4expression in esophageal cancer.J Natl Cancer Inst,2005,97(24):1840-1847.
[17]STACKER S A,ACHEN M G,JUSSILA L,et al.Lymphangiogenesis and cancer metastasis.Nat Rev Cancer,2002,2:573-583.
[18]PADERA T P,KADAMBI A,DI TOMASO E,et al.Lymphatic metastasis in the absence of functional intratumor lymphatics.Science,2002,296:1883-1886.
[19]CAVALLARO U CHRISTOFORI G.Cell adhesion and signalling by cadherins and Ig-CAMs in cancer.Nature Rev.Cancer,2004,4:118-132.
[20]LU Z,GHOSH S,WANG Z,et al.Downregulation of caveolin-1function by EGF leads to the loss of E-cadherin,increased transcriptional activity ofβ-catenin,and enhanced tumor cell invasion.Cancer Cell,2003 4:499-515.
[21]ZHAO X J,LI H,CHEN H,et al.Expression of E-cadherin and beta-catenin in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma:relationships with prognosis.World J Gastroenterol,2003,9:225-232.
[22]HUANG S Y,BUCANA C D,VAN-ARSDALL M,et al.Statl negatively regulates an giogenesis,tumorigenicity and metastasis of tumor cells.Oncogene,2002,21(16):2504-2512.
[23]HARRISON G M,DAVIES G,MARTIN T A,et al.The influence of CD44v3-v10on adhesion,invasion and MMP-14expression in prostate cancer cells.Oncol Rep,2006,15(1):199-206.
[24]GIANNELI G,BERGAMINI C,MARINOSCI F,et al.Clinical role of MMP2/TIMP2imbalance in hepatoeelular carcinoma.Int J Cancer,2002,97(4):425-431.
[25]BUERKLE M A,PAHEMIK S A,SUTTER A,et al.Inhibition of the alpha-nuintegerins with a RGD peptide impairs angiogenesis growth and metastasis of solid tumor in vivo.Br J Cancer,2002,86(5):788-795.
[26]MIRONCHIK Y,WINNARD P T JR,et al.Twist overexpression induces in vivo angiogenesis and correlates with chromosomal instability in breast cancer.Cancer Res,2005,65(23):10801-10809.
[27]MORIMOTO-TOMITA M,OHASHI Y,MATSUBARA A,et al.Mouse colon carcinoma cells established for high incidence of experimental hepatic metastasis exhibit accelerated and anchorage-independent growth.Clin Exp Metastasis,2005,22(6):513-521.
[28]SHARMA M R,KOLTOWSKI L,OWNBEY R T,et al.Angiogenesis-associated protein annexinⅡin breast cancer:selective expression in invasive breast cancer and contribution to tumor invasion and progression.Exp Mol Pathol,2006,81(2):146-156.
[29]JIANG W G,DAVIES G,MARTIN T A,et al.Expression of membrane type-1matrix metalloproteinase,MT1-MMP in human breast cancer and its impact on invasiveness of breast cancer cells.Int J Mol Med,2006,17(4):583-590.
[30]FANI M,PSIMADAS D,ZIKOS C,et al.Comparative evaluation of linear and cyclic 99mTc-RGD peptides for targeting of integrins in tumor angiogenesis.Anticancer Res,2006,26(1A):431-434.
[31]McDANIEL S M,RUMER K K,BIROC S L,et al.Remodeling of the mammary microenvironment after lactation promotes breast tumor cell metastasis.Am J Pathol,2006,168(2):608-620.
[32]PENG S H,DENG H,YANG J F,et al.Significance and relationship between infiltrating inflammatory cell and tumor angiogenesis in hepatocellular carcinoma tissues.World J Gastroenterol,2005,11(41):6521-6524.
[33]KOPFSTEIN L,CHRISTOFORI G.Metastasis:cell-autonomous mechanisms versus contributions by the tumor microenvironment.Cell Mol Life Sci,2006,63(4):449-468.
[34]BONFIL R D,SABBOTA A,NABHA S,et al.Inhibition of human prostate cancer growth,osteolysis and angiogenesis in a bone metastasis model by a novel mechanism-based selectivegelatinase inhibitor.Int J Cancer,2006,118(11):2721-2726.
[35]BREMNES R M,CAMPS C,SIRERA R.Angiogenesis in non-small cell lung cancer:the prognostic impact of neoangiogenesis and the cytokines VEGF and bFGF in tumours and blood.Lung Cancer,2006,51(2):143-158.
[36]HIBINO S,SHIBUYA M,HOFFMAN M P,et al.Laminin alpha5chain metastasis-and angiogenesis-inhibiting peptide blocks fibroblast growth factor 2activity by binding to the heparan sulfate chains of CD44.Cancer Res,2005,65(22):10494-10501.
[37]JONES L E,HUMPHREYS M J,CAMPBELL F,et al.Comprehensive analysis of matrix metalloproteinase and tissue inhibitor expression in pancreatic cancer:increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-7predicts poor survival.Clin Cancer Res,2004,10(8):2832-2845.
[38]NAGEL H,LASKAWI R,WAHLERS A,et al.Expression of matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2,MMP-9and their tissue inhibitors TIMP-1,TIMP-2and TIMP-3in benign and malignant tumours of the salivary gland.Histopathology,2004,44(3):222-231.
[39]KATAYAMA A,BANDOH N,KISHIBE K,et al.Expressions of matrix metalloproteinases in early-stage oral squamous cell carcinoma as predictive indicators for tumor metastases and prognosis.Clin Cancer Res,2004,10(2):634-640.
[40]HOFMANN U B,EGGERT A A,BLASS K,et al.Expression of matrix metalloproteinases in the microenvironment of spontaneous and experimental melanoma metastases reflects the requirements for tumor formation.Cancer Res,2003,63(23):8221-8225.
[41]GAKIOPOULOU H,NAKOPOULOU L,SIATELIS A,et al.Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2as a multifunctional molecule of which the expression is associated with adverse prognosis of patients with urothelial bladder carcinomas.Clin Cancer Res,2003,9(15):5573-5581.
[42]KIOI M,YAMAMOTO K,HIGASHI S,et al.Matrilysin(MMP-7)induces homotypic adhesion of human colon cancer cells and enhances their metastatic potential in nude mouse model.Oncogene,2003,22(54):8662-8670.
[43]GAKIOPOULOU H,NAKOPOULOU L,SIATELIS A,et al.Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2as a multifunctional molecule of which the expression is associated with adverse prognosis of patients with urothelial bladder carcinomas.Clin Cancer Res,2003,9(15):5573-5581.
[44]MURAI T,MIYAZAKI Y,NISHINAKAMURA H,et al.Engagement of CD44promotes Rac activation and CD44cleavage during tumor cell migration.J Biol Chem,2004,279(6):4541-4550.
[45]HOJILLA C V,MOHAMMED F F,KHOKHA R.Matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors direct cell fate during cancer development.Br J Cancer,2003,89(10):1817-1821.
[46]STOLZ D B,MICHALOPOULOS C K.Synergistic enhancement of EGF,but not HGF,stimulated hepatocyte motility by TGF-beta 1in vitro.J Cell Physiol,1997,170(1):57-68.
[47]MA J,ZHOU J,FAN S,et al.Role of a novel EGF-like domain-containing gene NGX6in cell adhesion modulation in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells.Carcinogenesis,2005,26(2):281-291.
[48]WANG S J,SAADI W,LIN F,et al.Differential effects of EGF gradient profiles on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell chemotaxis.Exp Cell Res,2004,300(1):180-189.
[49]LADER A S,RAMONI M F,ZETTER B R,et al.Identification of a transcriptional profileassociated with in vitro invasion in non-small cell lung cancer cell lines.Cancer Biol Ther,2004,3(7):624-631.
[50]BREDIN C G,LIU Z,KLOMINEK J.Growth factor-enhanced expression and activity of matrix metalloproteases in human non-small cell lung cancer cell lines.Anticancer Res,2003,23(6C):4877-4884.
免责声明:以上内容源自网络,版权归原作者所有,如有侵犯您的原创版权请告知,我们将尽快删除相关内容。