播散需要细胞与基质或细胞与细胞的接触脱离。在正常条件下,细胞与基质或细胞与细胞的接触被破坏时将启动凋亡程序。失巢凋亡(anoikis)是一种特殊的凋亡形式,当正常细胞处于悬浮状态时该程序启动,该凋亡程序可以保护组织器官免受其他来源的悬浮细胞的侵犯。因此,转移的细胞在其他部位播散和克隆形成的过程中必须具备抗凋亡和失巢凋亡的能力。许多研究表明一些重要的凋亡调节因子在转移过程中被降解,这些失调带来多方面的影响:存活信号通路的激活(如PI3激酶-AKT),基质金属蛋白酶(可下调死亡受体,释放生长因子和调节细胞外基质以利于侵袭)的上调,抗凋亡蛋白(BCL-2,BCL-XL)或FAK的过表达以及p53的失活等。一项为寻找抗失巢凋亡的蛋白的功能筛选实验表明,神经营养受体TRKB是一个关键的调控者。大鼠肠内上皮细胞对脱离接触而诱导的失巢凋亡非常敏感且不形成肿瘤,但是转染TRKB后,它们形成肿瘤的能力大大增强并同时通过淋巴和血管转移,甚至可以破坏骨质。TRKB在人类恶性肿瘤中经常过表达,且在大肠癌中存在突变。TRKB的激活还通过缺氧诱导因子(hypoxia inducible factor,HIF)1α诱导血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)的表达,辅助肿瘤在其他部位克隆的建立及血管生成。
(赵雪莲 詹启敏)
主要参考文献
[1]ACHEN M G,MCCOLL B K,STACKER S A.Focus on lymphangiogenesis in tumor metastasis[J].Cancer Cell,2005,7(2):121-127.
[2]BACHELDER R E,YOON S O,FRANCI C,et al.Glycogen synthase kinase-3is an endogenous inhibitor of Snail transcription:implications for the epithelial-mesenchymal transition[J].J Cell Biol,2005,168(1):29-33.
[3]BARDELLI A,PARSONS D W,SILLIMAN N,et al.Mutational analysis of the tyrosine kinome in colorectal cancers[J].Science,2003,300(5621):949.
[4]BERGER J C,VANDER GRIEND D J,ROBINSON V L,et al.Metastasis suppressor genes:from gene identification to protein function and regulation[J].Cancer Biol Ther,2005,4(8):805-812.
[5]BERGERS G,BENJAMIN L E.Tumorigenesis and the angiogenic switch[J].Nat Rev Cancer,2003,3(6):401-410.
[6]BINDRA R S,GLAZER P M.Genetic instability and the tumor microenvironment:towards the concept of microenvironment-induced mutagenesis[J].Mutat Res,2005,569(1-2):75-85.
[7]BIRCHMEIER C,BIRCHMEIER W,GHERARDI E,et al.Met,metastasis,motility and more[J].Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol,2003,4(12):915-925.
[8]CAVALLARO U,CHRISTOFORI G.Cell adhesion and signalling by cadherins and Ig-CAMs in cancer[J].Nat Rev Cancer,2004,4(2):118-132.
[9]CHRISTOFORI G.New signals from the invasive front[J].Nature,2006,441(7092):444-450.
[10]CONROTTO P,CORSO S,GAMBERINI S,et al.Interplay between scatter factor receptors and B plexins controls invasive growth[J].Oncogene,2004,23(30):5131-5137.
[11]DACHS G U,TOZER G M.HYPOXIA modulated gene expression:angiogenesis,metastasis and therapeutic exploitation[J].Eur J Cancer,2000,36(13Spec No):1649-1660.
[12]DE CRAENE B,ROY F,BERX G.Unraveling signalling cascades for the Snail family of transcription factors[J].Cell Signal,2005,17(5):535-547.
[13]DOUMA S,VAN LAAR T,ZEVENHOVEN J,et al.Suppression of anoikis and induction of metastasis by the neurotrophic receptor TrkB[J].Nature,2004,430(7003):1034-1039.
[14]ECCLES S A,WELCH D R.Metastasis:recent discoveries and novel treatment strategies[J].Lancet,2007,369(9574):1742-1757.
[15]ERLER J T,BENNEWITH K L,NICOLAU M,et al.Lysyl oxidase is essential for hypoxia-induced metastasis[J].Nature,2006,440(7088):1222-1226.
[16]FIDLER I J.The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis:the“seed and soil”hypothesis revisited[J].Nat Rev Cancer,2003,3(6):453-458.
[17]GAVERT N,CONACCI-SORRELL M,GAST D,et al.L1,a novel target of beta-catenin signaling,transforms cells and is expressed at the invasive front of colon cancers[J].J Cell Biol,2005,168(4):633-642.
[18]GEIGER T R,PEEPER D S.The neurotrophic receptor TrkB in anoikis resistance and metastasis:a perspective[J].Cancer Res,2005,65(16):7033-7036.
[19]GUO W,GIANCOTTI F G.Integrin signalling during tumour progression[J].Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol,2004,5(10):816-826.
[20]HERYNK M H,STOELTZING O,REINMUTH N,et al.Down-regulation of c-Met inhibits growth in the liver of human colorectal carcinoma cells[J].Cancer Res,2003,63(11):2990-2996.
[21]HUANG L E,BINDRA R S,GLAZER P M,et al.Hypoxia—induced genetic instability—a calculated mechanism underlying tumor progression[J].J Mol Med,2007,85(2):139-148.
[22]HUBER M A,LRAIT M,BEIG H.Molecular requirements for epithelial-mesenchymal transition during tumor progression[J].Curr Opin Cell Biol,2005,17(5):548-558.
[23]KANG Y,SIEGEL P M,SHU W.Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions:twist in development and metastasis[J].Cell,2004,118(3):277-279.
[24]KANG Y,SIEGEL P M,SHU W,et al.A multigenic program mediating breast cancer metastasis to bone[J].Cancer Cell,2003,3(6):537-549.
[25]KAPLAN R N,RIBA R D,ZACHAROULISS,et al.VEGFR1-positive haematopoietic bone marrow progenitors initiate the pre-metastatic niche[J].Nature,2005,438(7069):820-827.
[26]KARHADKAR S S,BOVA G S,ABDALLAH N,et al.Hedgehog signalling in prostate regeneration,neoplasia and metastasis[J].Nature,2004,431(7009):707-712.
[27]KLOS K S,WYSZOMIERSKI S L,SUN M,et al.ErbB2increases vascular endothelial growth factor protein synthesis via activation of mammalian target of rapamycin/p70S6Kleading to increased angiogenesis and spontaneous metastasis of human breast cancer cells[J].Cancer Res,2006,66(4):2028-2037.
[28]LARUE L,BELLACOSA A.Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in development and cancer:role of phosphatidylinositol 3′kinase/AKT pathways[J].Oncogene,2005,24(50):7443-7454.
[29]LIOTTA L A,KOHN E.Anoikis:cancer and the homeless cell[J].Nature,2004,430(7003):973-974.
[30]LIU L,SIMON M C.Regulation of transcription and translation by hypoxia[J].Cancer Biol Ther,2004,3(6):492-497.
[31]LYNCH C C,HIKOSAKA A,ACUFF H B,et al.MMP-7promotes prostate cancer-induced osteolysis via the solubilization of RANKL[J].Cancer Cell,2005,7(5):485-496.
[32]MARONE R,HESS D,DANKORT D,et al.Memo mediates ErbB2-driven cell motility[J].Nat Cell Biol,2004,6(6):515-522.
[33]MATTEUCCI E,LOCATI M,DESIDERIO M A.Hepatocyte growth factor enhances CXCR4 expression favoring breast cancer cell invasiveness[J].Exp Cell Res,2005,310(1):176-185.
[34]MEHLEN P,PUISIEUX A.Metastasis:aquestion of life or death[J].Nat Rev Cancer,2006,6(6):449-458.
[35]MINN A J,GUPTA G P,SIEGEL P M,et al.Genes that mediate breast cancer metastasis to lung[J].Nature,2005,436(7050):518-524.
[36]MURDOCH C,GIANNOUDIS A,LEWIS C E.Mechanisms regulating the recruitment of macrophages into hypoxic areas of tumors and other ischemic tissues[J].Blood,2004,104(8):2224-2234.
[37]NAKAMURA K,MARTIN K C,JACKSON J K,et al.Brain-derived neurotrophic factor activation of TrkB induces vascular endothelial growth factor expression via hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha in neuroblastoma cells[J].Cancer Res,2006,66(8):4249-4255.
[38]PEINADO H,BALLESTAR E,ESTELLER M,et al.Snail mediates E-cadherin repression by the recruitment of the Sin3A/histone deacetylase 1(HDAC1)/HDAC2complex[J].Mol Cell Biol,2004,24(1):306-319.
[39]PEINADO H,DEL CARMEN IGLESIAS-DE LA CRUZ M,OLMEDA D,et al.A molecular role for lysyl oxidase-like 2enzyme in snail regulation and tumor progression[J].Embo J,2005,24(19):3446-3458.
[40]RINKER-SCHAEFFER C W,O′KEEFE J P,WELCH D R,et al.Metastasis suppressor proteins:discovery,molecular mechanisms,and clinical application[J].Clin Cancer Res,2006,12(13):3882-3889.
[41]ROBSON E J,KHALED W T,ABELL K,et al.Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition confers resistance to apoptosis in three murine mammary epithelial cell lines[J].Differentiation,2006,74(5):254-264.
[42]SAHARINEN P,TAMMELA T,KARKKAINEN M J,et al.Lymphatic vasculature:development,molecular regulation and role in tumor metastasis and inflammation[J].Trends Immunol,2004,25(7):387-395.
[43]SCHIOPPA T,URANCHIMEG B,SACCANI A,et al.Regulation of the chemokine receptor CXCR4by hypoxia[J].J Exp Med,2003,198(9):1391-1402.
[44]STEEG P S.Metastasis suppressors alter the signal transduction of cancer cells[J].Nat Rev Cancer,2003,3(1):55-63.
[45]STEEG P S,OUATAS T,HALVERSON D,et al.Metastasis suppressor genes:basic biology and potential clinical use[J].Clin Breast Cancer,2003,4(1):51-62.
[46]STELLA M C,TRUSOLINO L,PENNACCHIETTI S,et al.Negative feedback regulation of Met-dependent invasive growth by Notch[J].Mol Cell Biol,2005,25(10):3982-3996.
[47]THIERY J P,SLEEMAN J P.Complex networks orchestrate epithelial-mesenchymal transitions[J].Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol,2006,7(2):131-142.
[48]THOMPSON E W,NEWGREEN D F,TARIN D.Carcinoma invasion and metastasis:a role for epithelial-mesenchymal transition?[J].Cancer Res,2005,65(14):5991-5995.
[49]TOWNSON J L,NAUMOV G N,CHAMBERS A F.The role of apoptosis in tumor progression and metastasis[J].Curr Mol Med,2003,3(7):631-642.
[50]WEIL R J,PALMIERI D C,BRONDER J L,et al.Breast cancer metastasis to the central nervous system[J].Am J Pathol,2005,167(4):913-920.
[51]YANG Y A,DUKHANINA O,TANG B,et al.Lifetime exposure to a soluble TGF-beta antagonist protects mice against metastasis without adverse side effects[J].J Clin Invest,2002,109(12):1607-1615.
[52]ZEELENBERG I S,RUULS-VAN STALLE L,ROOS E.The chemokine receptor CXCR4is required for outgrowth of colon carcinoma micrometastases[J].Cancer Res,2003,63(13):3833-3839.
[53]ZHOU B P,DENG J,XIA W,et al.Dual regulation of Snail by GSK-3beta-mediated phosphorylation in control of epithelial-mesenchymal transition[J].Nat Cell Biol,2004,6(10):931-940.
免责声明:以上内容源自网络,版权归原作者所有,如有侵犯您的原创版权请告知,我们将尽快删除相关内容。