第五节 犹太定居点的管理和管理机构
一、犹太定居点管理机构概述
为了管理巴勒斯坦被占领土上的犹太定居点,以色列将其国内地方行政管理机构的设置复制到了被占领土上。以色列现在管理和服务于约旦河西岸地区犹太定居点的地方行政权力机构如下:3个市政委员会(议会),14个地方议会和6个地区议会,106个小型定居点。此外,在1967年吞并入以色列的地区建有12个犹太定居点,它们被包括在耶路撒冷市政委员会的司法管辖之下。
二、犹太定居点管理机构列表
以色列在被占领土上的犹太定居点管理机构及其层级如表2:
表2 以色列在约旦河西岸地区的地方权力机构
*每一个地区议会后括号内数字指的是辖区内犹太定居点数量(根据以色列内政部承认的地方委员会的数量)。**以色列中央统计局2000年末的最终数字。资料来源:Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P69.
【注释】
[1]由于在加沙和戈兰高地的情况与约旦河西岸地区的情况基本类似,所以在此就不再予以赘述。
[2]4杜纳姆=1英亩。
[3]Article 46 of the Regulations Attached to the Hague Convention on the Laws of War on Land of 1907.
[4]Yoram Dinstein:Laws of War,Tel Aviv:Schocken and Tel Aviv University,1983,P234.
[5]Usamah Halabi:Aron Turner and Meron Benvenisti,Land Alienation in the West Bank:A Legal and Spatial Analysis,Jerusalem:The West Bank Data Project,1985,P83.
[6]HCJ 258/79,Ayub et al v.Minister of Defense et al.,Piskei Din 33(2)119.
[7]这里指为以色列的安全考虑。
[8]HCJ 390/79,Dweikat et al.v.Government of Israel et al.,Piskei Din 34(1)1 Elon Moreh,pp.21~22.
[9]HCJ 390/79,Dweikat et al.v.Government of Israel et al.,Piskei Din 34(1)1 Elon Moreh,P24.
[10]其能够充分证明该犹太定居点是基于军事需要而建这种论点是牵强附会之词,也是毫无根据的。
[11]State Comptroller:Annual Report 48,Jerusalem;1998,pp.1032~1033.
[12]State Comptroller:Annual Report 48,P1036.
[13]HCJ 2717/96,Wafa et al.v.Minister of Defense et al.,Piskei Din 50(2),848.
[14]ARIJ,A New Military Order to Seize 300 Dunam of al-Khader Village,September 2001,http://www.poica.org.
[15]“因特发达”,阿拉伯语,意为“起义”,指1987年至1993年间,以及2000年以来巴勒斯坦人为反对以色列的占领而举行的起义。
[16]Ze'ev Schif,f“The Foolish March of the Bypass Roads”,Ha'aretz,15 February 2002.
[17]1858年奥斯曼土地法在1970年被以色列重新制定的土地法取代以前在以色列境内一直有效。
[18]Pliya Albeck:Land in Judea and Samaria,lecture at Bet Hapraklit on 28 May 1985,Israel Bar Association,P5.
[19]Laws of War:Laws and Customs of War on Land(Hague IV);October 18,1907,http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague04.htm#iart1.
[20]Laws of War:Laws and Customs of War on Land(Hague IV);October 18,1907,http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague04.htm#iart1.
[21]Eyal Zamir,State Lands in Judea and Samaria,a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P42.
[22]Maj.Aharon Mishnayot(ed.):Planning,Building and Land Laws in Judea and Samaria,the Judge Advocate's Office the Civil Administration of Judea and Samaria,P425.
[23]Kenneth Stein:The Land Question in Palestine,1917-1939,University of North Carolina Press,1984,P11.
[24]Raja Shehade:The Law of the Land–Settlement and Land Issues Under Israeli Military Occupation,Jerusalem:PASSIA,1993,pp.15~16.
[25]Article 78,Ottoman Land Law in Planning,Building and Land Laws,P528.
[26]Raja Shehade:The Law of the Land–Settlement and Land Issues Under Israeli Military Occupation,pp.22~23.
[27]Eyal Zamir,State Lands in Judea and Samaria,a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P18.
[28]Eyal Zamir,op.cit.,P16.
[29]Kenneth Stein:The Land Question in Palestine,1917-1939,University of North Carolina Press,1984,pp.14~15.
[30]Order Regarding Government Property(Judea and Samaria)(No.59),5727-1967,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,pp.520~523.
[31]Meron Benvenisti and Shlomo Khayat:The West Bank and Gaza Atlas,P61.
[32]Zamir,State Land in Judea and Samaria,a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P33.
[33]军事上诉委员会由占领军事长官任命的三人组成,其中一人必须经历过法律训练。在听证由巴勒斯坦人提起针对管理处裁决的上诉时,指导该委员会的中心原则就是举证责任取决于巴勒斯坦人是否能够声明特定土地不是国有土地:“假如管理处已经以一份有当事人签章的书面证明来确证,那么任何财产都是政府财产。财产在被证明属于其他财产之前一律视为政府财产。”如果上诉委员会决定拒绝某一上诉请求或者某一上诉请求未能按时提起,那么土地登记程序就到此结束,而土地也以管理处的名义进行登记。需要说明的是,上诉委员会使宣布和登记一个巴勒斯坦人的土地为国有土地的程序归于无效的几率是极其低的。在绝大多数情况下,上诉委员会不过是扮演着军事当局决定的橡皮图章。因为上诉委员会是管理处决定被挑战的唯一机构,其存在一方面允许以色列当局继续这种宣布巴勒斯坦人土地为国有土地之程序,另一方面又允许以色列人声明这种程序是出于法律审查和监督之下的。
[34]Meron Benvenisti and Shlomo Khayat:The West Bank and Gaza Atlas,P61.
[35]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman:Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,P54.
[36]Zamir,State Land in Judea and Samaria,a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P27.
[37]Order Regarding the Regulation of Land and Water(Judea and Samaria)(No.291),5729-1968,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,pp.542~543.
[38]Zamir,State Land in Judea and Samaria a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P27.
[39]Registration of Previously Unregistered Immovable Property Law,No.6 for 1964,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,P503.
[40]Zvi Freisler(ed.):Legislation in Judea and Samaria,Jerusalem:Ketubim,1987,P105.
[41]从1983年起,穆卡特斯成为当地居民唯一的信息源,因为政府财产管理处在宣布某土地为国有时不再附以地图。See Raja Shehade: Occupier's Law,Israel and the West Bank,Washington:Institute for Palestine Studies,1988,P30.
[42]See Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman:Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,P56.
[43]See Avraham Sochovolsky:Eliyahu Cohen and Avi Ehrlich,Judea and Samaria–Land Rights and Law in Israel,Tel Aviv:Bursi,1986,P37.
[44]Yehezkel Lein:Thirsty for a Solution,Resolving the Water Crisis in the West Bank in the Occupied,Territories and its Resolution in the Final-Status Agreement,B'Tselem,July 2000,P42.
[45]Yehezkel Lein:Builders of Zion–Human Rights Violations of Palestinians from the Occupied,Territories Working in Israel and the Settlements,B'Tselem,September 1999,Chapter 1.
[46]Section 5,Order Regarding Government Property,P522.
[47]以色列政府已经将遗弃财产管理处同政府财产管理处的功能进行了合并,组建了一个单一机构——犹地亚、撒玛利亚政府和遗弃财产管理处。
[48]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman:Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,P58.
[49]Order Regarding Abandoned Property(Private Property)(Additional Provisions)(Judea and Samaria)(No.150),5727-1967,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,P516.
[50]State Comptroller,Annual Report 37.
[51]Meron Benvenisti:Lexicon of Judea and Samaria:Settlements Administration and Society,Jerusalem:Cana,1987,P52.
[52]The Land Law–Acquisition for Public Needs,Law No.2 for 1953,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,pp.439~446.
[53]The Land Law–Acquisition for Public Needs,Law No.2 for 1953,sections 5-9 of the Land Law,Acquisition for Public Needs Planning.
[54]Zamir,State Land in Judea and Samaria,a Legal Review,No.12,Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,1985,P33.
[55]202/81,Tabib et al.v.Minister of Defense,Piskei Din 36(2)622.
[56]犹太民族基金会成立于1901年,是“具体实施犹太复兴思想的第一个组织”,其主要任务是在巴勒斯坦地区获取土地、发展生产,换句话说也就是为犹太人开拓生存空间。该组织从巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人手中征收土地,负责开垦、造林以及筹划推进犹太复国主义事业的发展项目。以色列政府和犹太民族基金会在获取土地、发展计划上密切合作,更重要的是,犹太民族基金会作为一个非官方的机构可以代行诸多政府不便于实施的计划。从这个意义上讲,犹太民族基金会既是一个利益集团,又是一个推行以色列国家掠夺性、排他性土地政策的一个有用的工具,其存在和活动必然造成犹太人和阿拉伯人的分裂和不平等。
[57]Shlomo Gazit:Trapped Fools-Thirty Years of Israel Policy in the Territories,Frank Cass Publishers,2003,pp.244~245.
[58]Hoffnung:State Security Versus the Rule of Law,P311.
[59]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman:Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,P63.
[60]Order Regarding the Law to Amend Provisions Relating to Real Estate(Judea and Samaria)(No.811),5740-1979,in Planning,Building and Land Laws,P554.
[61]Raja Shehade:Occupier's Law,Israel and the West Bank,Washington; Institute for Palestine Studies,1988,P40.
[62]Ir Shalem:East Jerusalem-Planning Situation,Jerusalem,November 1999,P4.
[63]Eitan Felner:A Policy of Discrimination:Land Expropriation,Planning and Building in East Jerusalem,B'Tselem,May 1995,P57.
[64]Zamir and Benvenisti,“Jewish Land”in Judea,Samaria,the Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem,pp.87~98.
[65]类似的声明,See Eitan Felner:A Policy of Discrimination:Land Expropriation,Planning and Building in East Jerusalem,B'Tselem,May 1995,pp.44~55.
[66]Avshalom Rokach:Rural Settlement in Israel,the Jewish for Israel and the World Zionist Organization,1978,P63.
[67]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P20.
[68]国际关系研究所编:《巴勒斯坦问题参考资料》,世界知识出版社,1960年2月第1版,第106页。
[69]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P21.
[70]Meron Benvenisti:Lexicon of Judea and Samaria:Settlements Administration and Society,Cana,1987,P50.
[71]有点儿类似于中国的房地产开发企业。
[72]Meir Harnoy:Processes in the Planning of Settlement in Judea,Samaria and the Gaza Strip,in:Judea and Samaria Studies,Protocol of the Second Conference,1992,P369.
[73]当在私人土地上进行定居点活动时就不受此限制。
[74]State Comptroller,Annual Report 51B,P399.
[75]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P21.
[76]Meir Harnoy:Processes in the Planning of Settlement in Judea,Samaria and the Gaza Strip,Judea and Samaria Studies,Protocol of the Second Conference,1992,pp.370~371.
[77]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P22.
[78]Harnoy:Processes in the Planning of Settlement in Judea,Samaria and the Gaza Strip,Judea and Samaria Studies,Protocol of the Second Conference,1992,P371.
[79]Gwyn Rowley:Israel into Palestine,Mansell Publishing Limited,London,1984,P57.
[80]Orni,E.:Forms of Rural Settlement,Jewish National Fund,Jerusalem,1963,P178.
[81]Gwyn Rowley:Israel into Palestine,Mansell Publishing Limited,London,1984,P58.
[82]Gwyn Rowley:Israel into Palestine,Mansell Publishing Limited,London,1984,P59.
[83]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[84]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P24.
[85]在后来阶段,这种类型的定居点也开始在以色列境内出现,尤其是在加利利地区。
[86]有关这种犹太定居点的特征及其建造问题详见David Newman:The Role of Gush Emunim and the Yishuv Kehilati,Ph.D.dissertation,University of Durham,1981,Chapter 5.
[87]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[88]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P33.
[89]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[90]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P34.
[91]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[92]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P35.
[93]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[94]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P36.
[95]目前在中东地区,“绿线”有三层含义:第一,1964年塞浦路斯的希腊族和土耳其族发生武装冲突,当时的英军指挥官在同两族的代表进行谈判时,用绿笔在首都尼科西亚的地图上画出了一条隔离线,绿线由此产生。1974年塞浦路斯爆发“七月事件”后,原来只限于尼科西亚的绿线,向东西两端延伸,全长200多公里,将全国一分为二,北部为土族区,南部为希腊区。联合国维和部队沿着绿线部署,希土两族也沿线设立哨所,互相对峙。第二,1975年黎巴嫩内战爆发后,形成了一条5~6公里长,100~500米宽的“交界区”,把首都贝鲁特分割成基督教徒居住的东区和以穆斯林为主的西区,这条隔离带亦有“绿线”之称。而本书中所提到的“绿线”则特指它的第三层含义,即1949年阿以双方的停战分界线。
[96]Elisha Efrat,Judea and Samaria:Outline for Physical-Regional Planning,Ministry of the Interior,1970,P27.
[97]1995年9月28日在美国首都华盛顿签署的巴以关于约旦河西岸和加沙地带的过渡协议的附件一中,进一步对军队部署和安全安排作出了许多具体的规定。附件一第一条规定了以色列军队的重新部署以及责任的交接。在第一阶段,以色列国防军将从约旦河西岸人口稠密地区撤出,其中包括杰宁、纳布卢斯、图勒凯尔姆、卡勒吉利耶、拉马拉和伯利恒6座城市和450个城镇。就内部安全和公共秩序而言,协议对3类不同地区作出了6种不同的安排。A区,包括上述6座城市以及希伯伦市(不包括旧城和犹太区以及阿尔巴镇同族长墓相连的地区);B区,为约旦河西岸占巴勒斯坦总人口68%的巴勒斯坦地区;C区,约旦河西岸非人口稠密地区、对以色列具有战略重要性的地区以及犹太定居点。根据2000年3月巴以间沙姆沙伊赫协议后第二次重新安排,A区约占西岸地区的18.2%;B区约占西岸地区的21.8%;C区约占西岸地区的60%。
[98]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P93.
[99]以色列国内法律承认的地方机构分为三类:为拥有20 000人以上的城市中心提供基础设施的市;所管辖城镇人口在2 000~20 000人之间的地方议会;负责聚集在一定范围内的若干村庄的地区议会。See Ruth Ben-Haim(ed.):Facts About Israel,Israel Information Center,2003,P72.以色列在巴勒斯坦被占领土上犹太定居点的管理机构基本上也按照这一模式运行。
[100]根据以色列1993年制定的旅游地图,在整个巴勒斯坦地区,代号为一位数字的公路为高速公路,代号为两位数字的为主要道路,代号为三位数字的为地区道路。
[101]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P94.
[102]Micha Bar:Cooperation and Regimes in International Drainage Basins–the Function of Norms,thesis toward a Ph.D.in Philosophy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,1998.
[103]Interim Israeli-Palestinian Agreement Regarding the West Bank and Gaza Strip,Washington,September 28,1995,Protocol concerning Civil Affairs,Article 40,schedule 10.该协议基于这种假设即这些地下水盆地每年水再生量达到1.72亿升。这一数字与大部分专家的估计不符,他们认为这个数字只有1亿升。See B'Tselem:Thirsty for a Solution,P30.
[104]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P95.
[105]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[106]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P97.
[107]Ministry of Agriculture and the Settlement Division of the World Zionist Organization,Master Plan for Settlement for Samaria and Judea,Development Plan for the Area for 1983-1986.
[108]根据2008年底的统计数字计算所得。See“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[109]Yehezkel Lein,Civilians under Siege-Restrictions on Freedom of Movement as Collective Punishment,B'Tselem,January 2001,pp.9~10.
[110]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[111]Zvi Shulman(ed.),Impossible Coexistence:Human Rights in Hebron since the Massacre at the Cave of the Patriarchs,B'Tselem Information Sheet,September 1995.
[112]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[113]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[114]Outline Plan No.163/3,Itamar.
[115]Outline Plan 168/1,“Merhav Kaddim”and Plan 138/2,“Merhav Gannim”.
[116]有关沙龙计划的内容,后文有专门论述。
[117]Yehezkel Lein,Eyal Weizman,Land Grab-Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank,May 2002,ISSN 0793-520X,P100.
[118]Master Plan for Settlement,P19.
[119]这些横向道路大部分是由以色列建造或者升级改造的。
[120]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[121]Detailed Plan Hinanit,No.101,101/2,101/3 and Detailed Plan Shaqed,No.103,103/2,103/4.
[122]Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies,the Jerusalem Metropolis–A Master Plan and Development Plan,Jerusalem,1994.
[123]Eitan Felner,A Policy of Discrimination-Land ExpropriationPlanning and Building in East Jerusalem,B'Tselem,May 1995,P17.
[124]Ir Shalem:East Jerusalem–Planning Situation,P5.
[125]Yael Stein:Divide and Rule:Prohibition on Passage between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank,B'Tselem,May 1998,pp.5~6.
[126]有关这一问题的详细情况,请参阅Yuval Ginbar:On the Way to Annexation-Human Rights Violations Resulting from the Establishment and Expansion of the Ma'aleh Adumim Settlement,B'Tselem,July 1999,pp.23~35.
[127]“Settlements in the West Bank”,http://www.fmep.org/settlement_ info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-west-bank-1.
[128]这些定居点是位于该城北边的贝塔·埃利特、东边的尼弗·丹尼尔、南边的罗斯·祖瑞姆、西边的吉弗奥特。
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