第四节 与国际化的关联
一、格兰特和路阿德的指摘
正如已经非常明了的那样,近年来对应于社会和政治条件方面的变化以及压力团体研究的发展,与压力团体的定义以及功能相关的传统理论在相当程度上已不可避免的必须加以修正。在今天,一方面为了把压力团体且更加适度地加入到视野里来,企业以及政府的各部委也作为不可欠缺的部分被加入到讨论对象里,另一方面,也把现今阶段的积极政治文脉和压力团体的比较研究的立足点列入被考虑的范畴之中,故而必须对横跨政策过程的整个领域的压力团体的功能加以关注。
并且,问题还不限于此。因为与压力团体相关的传统观点最近也必须面对越来越醒目的另一个变化即国际化发展。根据国际化,传统观点有重新修正的必要性。W·格兰特从欧洲经济共同体的演技场里捕捉到了这样的对应国际化的压力团体活动,并就压力团体对EC施加影响,指出下列三条途径:
1.对本国政府在与EC协商时所持的立场施加影响,而且为了对EC决定的实施施加影响,还在国家这一层面上展开活动。
2.国家层级的压力团体通过欧洲层面的联合组织而进行活动。
3.在布鲁塞尔直接设置代表。
另外,伊万·路阿德(Evan Luard)还不断敦促人们对横贯国家全领域的压力团体(transnational pressure group)的发展给以注意。他认为:“长期以来作为国家内部政治活动的重要手段的压力团体活动,现在正逐渐地在国际层面实施展开。所有这些团体已经认识到现代的特别重要问题中的大部分,与其说是国内活动的倒不如说是国际活动的,因此,作为结果,今天这些团体的组织化已经形成。”[75]这一论述,就与压力政治的国际化的普遍事态相关联。
类似这样的压力政治的展开,对表现在国内政治过程的活动给予完整的关注,以及不可避免地对在这些成果之上形成的诸观点加以修正,这是非常自然的事情。所以,时至今日,“压力团体”的含义应该说不仅仅限于国内,在其不断扩展的同时也理所当然地将国际政策过程包括在其活动竞技场的主要范畴之内了。
【注释】
[1]Graham K.Wilson,Interest Groups,1990,p.xi.
[2]David B.Truman,The Governmental Process:Political Interests and Public Opinion,1951,p.59.
[3]James Q.Wilson,Political Organizations,1973,pp.198-199.
[4]Ronald J.Hrebenar and Ruth K.Scott,Interest Group Politics in America,2nd ed.,1990,p.13.
[5]拙稿“位于英国压力团体中的党派性图案及其动向”《早稻田政治经济学杂志》第207号,1967年第61~62页。
[6]Wyn Grant,Presure Groups,Politics and Democracy in Britain,1989,p.36.
[7]Henry Druckerh et al.,eds.,Developments in British Politics 2,rev,ed,1988,pp.348-349.
[8]Alan R.Ball and Frances Millard,Pressure Politics in Industrial Societies:A Comparative Introduction,1986;A.G.Jordan and J.J.Richardson,Government and Pressure Groups in Britain,1987;Wyn Grant,Pressure Group,Political and Democracy in Britain,1989;Graham K.Wilson,Interest Groups,1990;Michael Rush,ed.,Parliament and Pressure Politics,1990.
[9]G.K.Wilson,op.cit.,p.79.
[10]A.G.Jordan and J.J.Richardson,Government and Pressure Groups in Britain,1987,p.v.
[11]Graham Wilson,Interest Groups,1990,p.6.
[12]W.J.M.Mackenzie,“Pressure Groups:The Comceptual Framework,”Political Studies,Vol.Ⅲ,No.3,1955,p.249.
[13]Peter H.Odegard,Pressure Politics:The Story of The Anti-Saloon League,1928,p.vii.
[14]E.Pendleton Herring,Group Representation before Congress,1929,p.30.
[15]Ibid.,p.xi.
[16]Harwood L.Childs,Labor and Capital in National Politics,1930,p.vii.
[17]Edward McChesney Sait,Amerian Parties and Elections,1927,pp.103-138.
[18]Edward Logan,“Party Organization in the United States,”in Edward Logan,ed.,The American Political Scene,1936,p.86.
[19]James K.Pollock,“The Use of Money in Elections,”in E.Logan,ed.,ibid.,p.185.
[20]E.P.Herring,Public Administration and the Public Interest,1936,p.21.
[21]Ibid.,p.344.
[22]Walter Lippmann,Liberty and the News,1920,pp.61-62.
[23]W.Lippmann,The Method of Freedom,1934,p.76.
[24]H.L.Childs,“Pressure Groups and Propaganda”in E.Logan,ed.,op.cit.,p.206.n.3.
[25]Charles E.Merriam,NEW Aspects of Politics,2nd ed.,1931,p.xxxi.
[26]C.E.Merriam,Pollitical Power,Collier Boobks ed.,1964,pp.90-91.
[27]David B.Truman,The Governmental Process:Political Interests and Public Opinion,1951,pp.37,38-39.
[28]Samuel E.Finer,Anonymous Empire:A Study of the Lobby in Great Britain,1958,p.3.
[29]Samuel E.Finer,Anonymous Empire:A Study of the Lobby in Great Britain,1958,p.2.
[30]S.E.Finer,“Interest Groups and the Political Process in Great Britain,”in Henry W.Ehrmann,ed.,Interest Groups on Four Continents,1958,pp.117-118.
[31]H.W.Ehrmann,ed.,ibid.,p.233.然而,海克彻(Gunnar Heckscher)是瑞典的政治学者,当时是斯特克豪尔姆大学的教授,在1970到1975年之间任驻日本大使。
[32]Clinton Rossiter,Parties and Politics in America,1960,p.21.
[33]Ibid.
[34]Ibid.
[35]A.G.Jordan and J.J.Richardson,Government and Pressure Groups in Britain,1987,Wyn Grant,Politics and Democracy in Britain,1989.
[36]Jeffrey M.Berry,The Interest Group Society,1984;Graham Wootton,Interest Groups:Policy and Politics in America,1985;Allan J.Ciegler and Burdett A.Loomis,eds.,Interest Group Politics,2nd ed.,1986;Ronald J.Hrebenar and Clive S.Thomas,eds.,Interest Group Politics in the AMERICAN West,1987;Ronald J.Hrebenar and Ruth K.Scott,Interest Group Politics in America,2nd ed.,1990;H.R.Mahood,Interest Group Politics in America:A New Intensity,1990.然而,于1967年刊行的编著的以《位于美国政治之中的压力团体(Pressure Groups in Americam Politics)》为题的H·R·麦艾氟德,在其1990年的新著中依然按惯例那样使用了“利益团体”,但并未就此说明其理由。
[37]The Committee on Political Parties of the American Political Science Association,Toward a More Responsible Two-Part System,1950,pp.19,98.
[38]Michael Rush,ed.,Parliament and Pressure Politics,1990,p.7.
[39]Graham Wootton,Interest-Groups,1970,p.18.
[40]Graham Wootton,Pressure Groups in Britain:1720-1970,1975;Pressure Politics in Contemporary Britain,1978.另外,与此相关联,“密西根”州立大学要览也是把美国国内的压力团体作为议论对象的讲义题目选为“利益团体和政治运动”,针对于“利益团体”的选用,以外国的压力团体为主题的讲义则附加的是“比较政党、压力团体论”的题名,而对于“利益团体”这一用语的使用,则理应受到特别瞩目。
[41]Kay Lehman Schlozman and John T.Tierney,Organized Interests and American Democracy,1986,p.10.
[42]V.O.Key,Jr.,op.cit.,p.24.
[43]Dayton D.Mckean,Pary and Pressure Politics,1949,p.16.
[44]J.J.Richardson and A.G.Jordan,Governing Under Pressure:The Policy in a Post-Parliamentary Democracy,1979,p.16.
[45]Robert H.Salisbury,“Interest Groups”in Fred I.Greenstein and Nelson W.Polsby,eds.,Nongovernmental Polities(Handbook of Political Science,Vol.4),1975,p.175.
[46]Graham Wootton,Interest Groups:Policy and Politics in America,1985,p.22.
[47]Arthur C.Close et al.,eds.,Washington Representatives,12th ed.,1988,p.3.
[48]Arthur C.Close et al.,eds.,Washington Representatives,12th ed.,1988,pp.3,691-693,721-732.
[49]G.Wootton,op.cit.,pp.22-23.
[50]R.H.Salisbury,“Interest Representation:The Dominance of Institutions,”The American Political Science Review,Vol.78,No.1,1984,pp.72,75.
[51]A.G.Jordan and J.J.Richardson,Government and Pressures in Britain,p.18.
[52]Suzanne D.Berger,“Introduction”in S.D.Berger,ed.,Organizing Interest in Western Europe:Pluralism,Corporatism,and the Transformation of Politics,1981,p.1.
[53]Ibid.
[54]Suzanne D.Berger,“Introduction”in S.D.Berger,ed.,Organizing Interest in Western Europe:Pluralism,Corporatism,and the Transformation of Politics,1981,p.18.
[55]Gabriel A.Almond,Political Development:Essays in Heuristic Theory,1970,pp.61-62.
[56]E.P.Herring,Group Representation before Congress,p.241.
[57]V.O.Key,op.cit.,4th ed.,1958,p.159.
[58]Lester W.Mibrath,The Washington Lobbyists,1963,p.357.
[59]U.S.Congress,Senate,Congressional Record,1976,94th Cong.2dSess.,pp.S9269-9276.
[60]Robert T,MeKenzie,“Parties Pressure Groups and the British Political Process,”in R.Kimber and J.J.Richardson,eds.,Pressure Groups in Britain,p.280.
[61]Robert T,MeKenzie,“Parties Pressure Groups and the British Political Process,”in R.Kimber and J.J.Richardson,eds.,Pressure Groups in Britain,pp.280-281.
[62]D.B.Truman,op,cit.,p.520.
[63]Ibid.,p.210.
[64]Gabriel A.Almond and Sidney Verba,The Civic Culture:Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations,1963,p.300.
[65]R.T.McKenzie,op.cit.,p.286.
[66]A.G.Jordan J.J.Richardson,Government and Pressure Groups in Britain,p.vi.R.Dye.
[67]请参照拙著《美国压力团体的研究》,1980年,第144~148页。
[68]Thomas R.Dye and Harmon Zeigler,The Irony of Democracy:An Uncommon Introduction to American Politics,8th ed.,1990,pp.239-240.
[69]Clinton Rossiter,Parties and Politics in America,1960,pp.20-21.
[70]Dennis Kavanagh,British Politics:Continuities and Change,2nd ed.,1990,p.146.
[71]请参照本书Ⅳ-11章,以及W.Grant,op.cit.,p.63。
[72]W.Grant,ibid.,p.64.
[73]J.J.Richardson and A.G.Jordan,Governing Under Pressure:The Policy Process in a Post-Parliamentary Democracy,p.153.
[74]S.D.Berger,op.cit.,p.18.
[75]EvanLuard,The Globalization of Politics:The Changed Focus of Political Action World,1990,p.16.
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