以色列的政党政治与议会选举
1948年5月,以色列国宣告成立,组建临时政府。1949年1月,来自9个政党的120名成员组成立宪会议。同年2月,以色列颁布临时宪法。根据1949年临时宪法,以色列采用共和制政体;总统由议会选举产生,任期5年,可连任两届;议会实行一院制,设120个席位,议员任期4年;议会选举实行多党制,议员候选人必须是注册登记的政党成员,政党注册必须具备超过1500人的署名,获得选票超过1.5%的政党方可进入议会,议会席位在政党之间分配;议会第一大党的领导人出任总理,内阁成员由总理任命,总理和内阁成员对议会负责,内阁成员同时具有议员的资格。[774]
以色列政治制度的突出特征,在于议会的广泛权力。在中东地区,只有土耳其议会可与以色列议会相提并论。以色列的议会制度,导致发达的选举政治和为数众多的议会政党。自1948年建国开始,多党制的议会竞选长期构成以色列政治生活的核心内容,阿以关系与中东和平进程则是议会竞选的焦点所在。往往有超过20个政党参与议会竞选,约15个政党进入议会。[775]以色列的众多政党,可以划分为左翼政党、右翼政党、宗教政党和其他政党。1969年以前,左翼政党占据议会二分之一的席位,右翼政党占据四分之一的议会席位,宗教政党和其他政党亦占据四分之一的议会席位。1977年开始,宗教政党和其他政党依然占据四分之一的议会席位;然而,持左翼立场的工党占据的议会席位呈下降的趋势,右翼政党利库德集团占据的议会席位呈上升的趋势。
工党是以色列政坛最重要的左翼政党,在阿以冲突与中东和平进程的问题上持相对温和的立场。工党的前身是始建于1905年的青年工人党。1930年,青年工人党改称巴勒斯坦工人党。1968年,巴勒斯坦工人党改称工党。工党的社会基础是来自东欧的犹太人移民,以色列劳工联盟希斯塔德鲁特是支持工党的主要民间组织。[776]1930年,工党成员约6千人;1948年,工党成员超过4万人。[777]1949—1977年,工党构成以色列议会第一大党,工党领导人则是以色列政坛的核心人物。1949年,以色列举行建国后的首次议会选举,工党获得46个席位,工党领导人本—古里安出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1951年,工党在议会选举中获得45个席位,本—古里安再度出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1953年,本—古里安辞职,莫什·沙雷出任内阁总理。[778]1955年,工党在议会选举中获得40个席位,本—古里安第三次出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1959年,工党在议会中获得47个席位,本—古里安第四次出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1961年,工党在议会选举中获得42个席位,本—古里安第五次出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1963年,本—古里安辞职,列维·埃什科尔出任内阁总理。1965年,工党在议会选举中获得45个席位,列维·埃什科尔出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1969年,工党在议会选举中获得56个席位,戈尔达·梅厄出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。1973年,工党在议会选举中获得51个席位,伊扎克·拉宾出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。[779]1949—1977年工党执政期间,来自俄罗斯和波兰的欧裔移民主导内阁,占据80%的内阁职位;包括伊扎克·拉宾在内的土著犹太人占据内阁职位的10%,亚非裔移民亦占据内阁职位的10%。此间,工党领导层内部经历新旧两代的更替。本—古里安、列维·埃什科尔和戈尔达·梅厄系工党第一代领导人,发迹于英国委任统治时期;达扬、佩雷斯和伊戈尔·阿伦系工党第二代领导人,发迹于阿以战争时代,与以色列军方关系密切。[780]
解放运动始建于1948年,自由党始建于1961年。1964年,解放运动与自由党合并,组建加哈尔集团。1973年,加哈尔集团改称利库德集团,构成以色列政坛最重要的右翼政党。[781]利库德集团反对工党倡导的以土地换和平的政治原则,拒绝归还1967年第三次中东战争期间以色列占领的阿拉伯人土地,强调包括约旦河西岸和加沙地带在内的整个巴勒斯坦地区具有不可分割性,主张改善“落后群体”即亚非裔犹太人的经济社会状况。[782]利库德集团领导人亦主要来自欧裔移民,然而亚非裔移民构成支持利库德集团的重要社会基础。[783]第三次中东战争以后,亚非裔犹太人移民数量的迅速增长,导致工党与利库德集团之间力量对比的变化。1977年5月,以色列举行议会选举,工党获得32个席位,利库德集团获得43个席位;利库德集团取代工党成为议会第一大党,利库德集团领导人贝京出任内阁总理,组成利库德集团主导的多党联合政府。[784]以色列政坛由此进入工党与利库德集团分庭抗礼的时期。
1981年,以色列举行议会选举,利库德集团与工党平分秋色,利库德集团获得37.1%的选票和48个议会席位,工党获得36.6%的选票和47个议会席位。由于工党拒绝与利库德集团合作,贝京领导的利库德集团与其他右翼政党组成多党联合政府。[785]1983年,贝京辞职,沙米尔出任利库德集团领导人和内阁总理。在1984年举行的议会选举中,超过70%的亚非裔犹太人支持利库德集团,超过70%的欧裔犹太人支持工党,利库德集团与工党再度平分秋色,利库德集团获得41个议会席位,工党获得44个议会席位,利库德集团与工党组成联合政府,分别占据12个内阁职位,工党领导人佩雷斯与利库德集团领导人沙米尔轮流出任内阁总理。1988年,以色列举行议会选举,利库德集团获得40个席位,工党获得39个席位,利库德集团与工党再度组成联合政府,沙米尔出任内阁总理。1990年,利库德集团与工党联合政府解体,利库德集团与其他右翼政党组成联合政府。1992年,以色列举行议会选举,工党获得44个席位,利库德集团获得32个席位,工党领导人伊扎克·拉宾出任内阁总理,组成工党主导的多党联合政府。[786]1996年,以色列议会修改选举法,内阁总理由选民直接选举,利库德集团获得32个议会席位,工党获得34个议会席位,利库德集团领导人内塔尼亚胡以微弱的优势当选内阁总理,组成利库德集团主导的右翼政党联合政府。[787]1999年,工党获得26个议会席位,利库德集团获得19个议会席位,工党领导人巴拉克当选内阁总理,组成工党主导的左翼政党联合政府。[788]2001年2月,利库德集团领导人沙龙以获得62.5%选票的绝对优势当选内阁总理,组成包括利库德集团和工党在内的多党联合政府。[789]
锡安主义具有浓厚的宗教色彩,犹太人的明显特征在于犹太教的共同信仰。以色列国的建立可谓锡安主义的逻辑结果,以色列的宗教与国家之间联系密切,政治生活具有犹太教的浓厚色彩。犹太教拉比在教育和司法领域具有广泛的影响,宗教学校和宗教法庭长期延续。犹太教政党长期处于合法地位,强调犹太教法律在以色列国家的统治地位,构成以色列政治生活的突出特征。早期的犹太教政党,主要是始建于1903年的精神中心党、始建于1912年的以色列正教党、始建于1922年的精神中心工人党和始建于1925年的以色列正教工人党。1949年,精神中心党、精神中心工人党、以色列正教党与以色列正教工人党组成竞选联盟,获得12%的议会选票。1955年,精神中心党与精神中心工人党以及以色列正教党与以色列正教工人党分别组成议会竞选联盟,获得13.8%的议会选票。1956年,精神中心党与精神中心工人党合并组建国家宗教党,以色列正教党与以色列正教工人党合并组建宗教阵线。[790]1949—1977年,工党作为议会第一大党,与宗教政党长期保持政治合作,宗教政党成员多次加入工党主导的多党联合政府。1977年起,工党与利库德集团在议会竞选中平分秋色,宗教政党作为第三方势力构成影响以色列政治生活的重要因素。宗教政党大都持保守的立场,支持利库德集团为首的右翼政党,要求实行犹太教法的统治,强调犹太教信仰作为获得以色列公民权利的先决条件,反对“以土地换和平”的政治原则,主张将第三次中东战争以后占领的阿拉伯土地纳入以色列的版图。在1977年的议会选举中,宗教政党获得15%的选票。[791]在1999年的议会选举中,宗教政党获得27个议会席位。[792]
以色列的社会结构与经济生活
以色列是典型的移民国家,1948年以色列国的建立可谓犹太人移民巴勒斯坦的逻辑结果。1948年以色列建国后,犹太人向巴勒斯坦的移居过程进入新的阶段。以色列建国初期,犹太人移民主要是来自东欧纳粹集中营的大屠杀幸存者。英国委任统治时期,犹太人移民的数量为年均1.8万;以色列建国后的最初三年,犹太人移民的数量为月均1.8万。1948年5月至1949年底,34万犹太人移居以色列。[793]1950年7月,以色列议会颁布《回归法》,赋予世界各地的所有犹太人享有移居以色列和成为以色列公民的权利。[794]《回归法》形式上源于犹太教的相关宗教信条,旨在满足以色列建国初期的客观需要。《回归法》的颁布,提供了犹太人移居以色列的法律基础,进而敞开了犹太人移居以色列的大门。
1948—1953年是犹太人移居以色列的第一个高峰。1948年,10万犹太人移居以色列。1949年,25万犹太人移居以色列。1948—1951年,以色列新增犹太人移民68.7万,以色列的犹太人总数达到140万。[795]1948年,以色列的犹太人约占世界犹太人总数的6%;1953年,以色列的犹太人在世界犹太人总数中所占的比例上升为13%。[796]此间,相当数量的犹太人移民被以色列政府安置于1948年中东战争后阿拉伯人遗弃的城市,更多的犹太人移民生活在称作麦阿巴拉的新定居点。至1952年底,以色列政府兴建113处新定居点,安置犹太人移民25万。[797]1954—1957年是犹太人移居以色列的第二个高峰时期;1954年移居以色列的犹太人为1.8万,1955年移居以色列的犹太人为3.7万,1956年移居以色列的犹太人为5.6万,1957年移居以色列的犹太人为7.2万。[798]1948年建国之初,以色列约有人口80万。[799]1958年,本—古里安宣布,以色列人口达到200万。[800]1961—1964年是犹太人移居以色列的第三个高峰,此间移居以色列的犹太人达到近20万。[801]1993年,包括东耶路撒冷和戈兰高地在内的以色列总人口达到400万,其中83%是犹太人。大批移民的涌入,构成以色列犹太人数量增长的主要原因。[802]
以色列人口数量的增长,形成住房和就业的巨大压力,进而导致犹太人移民的逆向运动。1948—1973年,移居以色列的犹太人与自以色列移居海外的犹太人比例为6:1;1973—1989年,移居以色列的犹太人与自以色列移居他国的犹太人比例为3:1。1948—1952年,约4万犹太人自以色列移居海外。至1989年,共计约50万犹太人自以色列移居海外,其中大都移居美国和西欧诸国。[803]
自19世纪末至战后初期,移居巴勒斯坦的犹太人主要来自欧洲诸国。以色列建国初期,犹太人移民大都是来自东欧纳粹集中营的大屠杀幸存者。是为以色列的欧裔犹太人(即德系犹太人),称作“阿什肯纳兹”。进入50年代,欧裔犹太人的移民数量逐渐下降,称作“塞法尔迪”的亚非裔犹太人移民数量呈明显上升的趋势。亚非裔犹太人主要来自穆斯林人数居多的阿拉伯世界、土耳其、伊朗、阿富汗以及南亚的印度。1939年,约170万犹太人生活在上述地区,占世界犹太人总数的11%。[804]1948—1950年,约5万犹太人自也门移居以色列。1950—1951年,超过12万犹太人自伊拉克移居以色列。[805]1954—1957年,移居以色列的犹太人主要来自北非的突尼斯和摩洛哥;至1958年,自突尼斯和摩洛哥移居以色列的犹太人达到16万。[806]60年代中期,分布在中东地区的犹太人大都移居以色列。[807] 1948年,亚非裔犹太人仅占以色列总人口的11%;[808] 1967年,亚非裔犹太人超过欧裔犹太人,占以色列犹太人总数的55%。[809]80年代,约70万犹太人自苏联移居以色列。[810]1990年苏联解体后,另有40万犹太人自前苏联境内移居以色列。[811]2000年,来自埃塞阿比亚的犹太人移民达到5万人。[812]
称作“阿什肯纳兹”的欧裔犹太人与称作“塞法尔迪”的亚非裔犹太人分别来自不同的社会环境,在诸多方面存在明显的差异。先期移居巴勒斯坦的欧裔犹太人构成以色列建国的主导力量,长期控制以色列的议会、政府和经济活动。相比之下,亚非裔犹太人大都在1947年建国之后移居以色列,处于以色列国家和社会的边缘地带。欧裔犹太人普遍具有良好的教育背景,经济境况较好;亚非裔犹太人大都缺乏良好的教育背景,经济境况较差。50年代,欧裔犹太人移民大都被安置于北部原有的城市,亚非裔犹太人则被安置于乡村和南部内格夫沙漠边缘的新定居点。[813]60年代之前,以色列的犹太人以欧裔犹太人居多,犹太人内部尚无明显的贫富差距。进入60年代,特别是第三次中东战争以后,亚非裔犹太人的数量逐渐超过欧裔犹太人,亚非裔犹太人与欧裔犹太人之间的贫富差距日趋扩大。1960—1973年,亚非裔犹太人的人均年收入不及欧裔犹太人的二分之一。[814]1967年,约占以色列总人口20%的12万户犹太人处于贫困状态,其中83%系亚非裔犹太人。60年代后期,83%的欧裔犹太人平均每2人拥有1间住房;相比之下,只有49%的亚非裔犹太人达到同样的居住标准。1969年,亚非裔犹太人在以色列劳动力总数中所占的比例高达34%,在政府职员和白领中所占的比例却分别只有16%和19%。[815]尽管如此,议会民主制的政治框架,提供了亚非裔犹太人角逐政坛进而改善经济社会境况的重要条件。自70年代开始,亚非裔犹太人在以色列政坛的影响逐渐扩大。1969—1981年,工党的亚非裔犹太人支持率从51%下降为25%,利库德集团的亚非裔犹太人支持率从32%上升为60%。1977年和1981年,亚非裔犹太人普遍支持利库德集团,导致工党在议会竞选中的失败。[816]
农业是以色列的重要经济部门。生活在乡村的犹太人,40年代末约12万,占以色列犹太人总数的18%,50年代末约33万,占以色列犹太人总数的22%。以色列犹太人耕种的土地,40年代末为160万杜诺姆,50年代末增至390万杜诺姆。1966年,以色列控制区共有61.6万乡村居民和834处农业定居点,其中犹太人34万,占据729处农业定居点,耕地总面积为450万杜诺姆。[817]50年代,以色列从国际市场进口所需粮食的50%。60年代中期,以色列生产的粮食基本满足国内需要,开始出口棉花、水果和蔬菜。[818]1964年,农产品出口约占出口商品总额的三分之一。[819]
基布兹和莫沙夫是以色列乡村农业生产的基本模式。1947年,生活在巴勒斯坦的犹太人共有176个基布兹和58个莫沙夫。1959年,以色列乡村共有229个基布兹和264个莫沙夫。以色列建国前夕,生活在基布兹的犹太人占犹太人农业人口的三分之二,生活在莫沙夫的犹太人占犹太人农业人口的三分之一。1960年,生活在基布兹的犹太人数量增长一倍,生活在莫沙夫的犹太人数量增长三倍。1965年,229个基布兹共有犹太人7.8万,336个莫沙夫共有犹太人12万。[820]
进入60年代,工业化长足进步。50年代末,工业劳动力26万人,约占全部劳动力的四分之一。1950—1969年,工业产值增长3倍。[821]与此同时,农业生产的比重逐渐下降。1948年,农业劳动力约占全部劳动力的20%。1980年,农业劳动力仅占全部劳动力的6%。[822]
以色列经济发展的重要内容之一,是内格夫地区的开发。内格夫位于以色列南部,方圆1.2万平方公里,约占以色列国土面积的45%,水源匮乏,人烟稀少。60年代,以色列政府在内格夫地区开凿河渠,改善内格夫地区的生存环境,兴建定居点,安置犹太人移民。至1967年,内格夫地区的基布兹和莫沙夫达到57个,农业人口5.5万,开垦荒地14万公顷。与此同时,以色列政府在内格夫地区发展现代工业和采矿业。60年代中期,内格夫地区年产石油18.8万吨,铜矿年产量达到50万吨,亚喀巴湾北侧的埃拉特成为内格夫地区的主要港口。[823]
1948—1970年,以色列的国民生产总值年均增长10%,人均收入年均增长5%。国外资金的流入是以色列经济迅速增长的主要原因。1967年以前,海外犹太人向以色列提供的援助每年为2亿美元;1967—1973年,海外犹太人向以色列提供的援助达到每年7亿美元。[824]1952年9月,以色列与联邦德国政府在荷兰签署协议,联邦德国政府承诺在此后14年向以色列支付30亿马克(折合7.5亿美元)的赔偿。[825]美国是向以色列提供援助的主要西方国家。1967年以前,美国向以色列提供的援助每年为0. 5亿美元。1949—1965年,海外犹太人和美国政府提供的援助,以及联邦德国政府提供的经济赔偿,超过60亿美元。[826]1967—1986年,美国向以色列提供的援助共计30亿美元,其中12亿经济援助,18亿军事援助,美国政府的援助相当于海外犹太人援助的5倍。以色列经济发展的另一重要原因,在于持续的移民所提供的廉价劳动力和广泛的市场需求。1973年以后,犹太人移民逐渐减少,阿拉伯人成为新的廉价劳动力来源。1975年,约旦河西岸和加沙地带约四分之一的阿拉伯劳动力受雇于以色列的犹太人企业,主要从事建筑业。[827]
以色列经济生活的突出特征在于政府广泛的经济干预,政府投资和国有经济在国民经济中占举足轻重的地位。1983年起,以色列政府实行紧缩通货的政策,减少公共支出,降低生活必需品的补助金发放标准。[828]“以色列政府对于经济的干预程度超过几乎所有的民主国家,希斯塔德鲁特在以色列经济社会生活中占据举足轻重的地位”。1955年,希斯塔德鲁特控制以色列全部劳动力的35%。1960年,国有经济的雇佣劳动力占雇佣劳动力总数的60%。[829]1981年,30%的劳动力受雇于政府和国有企业。1982年,以色列政府通过税收占有国民收入的50%,国家土地署控制以色列全部土地的92%。1981年,30%的劳动力受雇于政府和国有企业。[830]
阿以之间的战争状态是制约以色列经济发展的关键因素,庞大的军费支出构成以色列政府沉重的财政负担。1967—1973年,以色列的军费支出达到60亿美元。第三次中东战争以后,阿拉伯国家共同抵制以色列。埃及关闭苏伊士运河,封锁蒂朗海峡,切断以色列南部港口埃拉特与红海之间的通道。伊拉克关闭通往海法的输油管道,迫使以色列从伊朗和墨西哥湾购买高价石油。[831]进入70年代,以色列经济增长速度下降。1970—1980年,以色列经济年增长率为2%。1982—1983年,增长率为零。[832]1977—1983年,以色列的通货膨胀率从34%上升为140%。80年代中期,以色列陷入严重的经济危机,通货膨胀率接近400%,股票市场崩溃,以色列货币舍克尔贬值,外债高达230亿美元,失业率上升,进出口贸易逆差超过40亿美元。自1984年起,以色列政府推行经济改革,大幅削减财政预算和生活必需品的补助金,控制公共开支,冻结物价,提高税率。此后,以色列经济形势逐渐好转,通货膨胀率1986年下降为20%,1987年下降为16.5%,财政赤字1985年下降为13.2%,1987年下降为2.8%。[833]90年代,以色列实行国有企业的非国有化改革,公共支出在政府财政收入中所占比例由1985年的75%下降为2000年的55%。1985—1995年,以色列经济年均增长2%;90年代末,经济年均增长率降至1%。1987—1997年,出口额从70亿美元增至210亿美元,军火出口构成以色列对外贸易的重要内容。[834]
1948年以色列建国初期,82%的犹太人生活在城市;其中,52%的犹太人分布在特拉维夫、海法和耶路撒冷三大城市,30%的犹太人分布在其他的城市。1968年,89%的犹太人生活在城市;其中,35%的犹太人分布在特拉维夫、海法和耶路撒冷三大城市,54%的犹太人分布在其他的城市。[835]相比之下,以色列控制区的阿拉伯人经历明显的城市化进程。1948年,以色列控制区的阿拉伯人中,约四分之一生活在城市。1989年,以色列控制区的阿拉伯人中,90%生活在城市。[836]
1948年第一次中东战争后,留居以色列控制区的阿拉伯人为15.6万,其中60%生活在加列利地区,20%生活在约旦边境地区,7%生活在海法,7%生活在内格夫地区。[837]1987年,以色列境内的阿拉伯人共计79.36万,其中穆斯林61.75万,基督徒10.3万,德鲁兹派7.61万。[838]联合国通过的阿以分治决议和以色列临时宪法,赋予以色列控制区的阿拉伯人与犹太人同等的权利。在理论上,以色列控制区的阿拉伯人享有参与议会选举的权利、组建政党的权利、言论自由的权利、使用阿拉伯语的权利,可以受雇于政府和司法等公职机构,在个人事务方面享有司法自治的权利,卡迪、伊斯兰教法庭和瓦克夫享有合法地位。然而,阿以之间长期处于战争状态,直接影响着以色列控制区阿拉伯人的实际境况。1950年3月,以色列议会通过法案,赋予犹太人占有阿拉伯人遗弃的土地和财产的合法权利。[839]以色列政府长期推行种族歧视和种族隔离的政策,驱逐边境地带所谓安全区的阿拉伯人,剥夺阿拉伯人的私人土地,限制阿拉伯人的行动自由,禁止阿拉伯人加入以色列军队,排斥阿拉伯人的政治参与。以色列的国旗和国歌具有犹太教的浓厚色彩;阿拉伯人在诸多方面无法与犹太人相提并论,成为以色列的二等公民。
第一次中东战争后,阿拉伯人聚居的约旦河西岸和加沙地带经济形势急剧恶化。1948—1952年,由于大量难民的涌入,约旦河西岸人口增长60%。加沙地带原有人口7—9万;第一次中东战争后,超过20万难民涌入加沙。由此导致的后果是,失业率上升,工资下降,民众生活长期依赖于联合国和阿拉伯世界的经济援助。在1966年的约旦河西岸,农业产值占国民生产总值的27%,工业产值占国民生产总值的9%,建筑业产值占国民生产总值的6%,服务业产值占国民生产总值的56%。在1966年的加沙地带,农业是最重要的经济部门,农业劳动力占全部劳动力的三分之一,农业收入占国民总收入的26.3%;柑橘是加沙地带的主要农作物,柑橘园占耕地面积的37%,柑橘出口额占出口总额的90%。[840]
1967年第三次中东战争后,约旦河西岸和加沙地带处于以色列的占领之下,经济生活严重依赖于以色列,以色列货币谢克尔成为约旦河西岸和加沙地带的主要货币。巴勒斯坦的劳务人员只能在白天进入以色列境内,夜间必须返回约旦河西岸和加沙地带。以色列商品可以自由进入约旦河西岸和加沙地带的市场,巴勒斯坦的商品进入以色列市场则受到严格的限制。1991年,以色列军营和包括25万人的150个犹太人定居点占据约旦河西岸三分之二的空旷地区,以色列当局控制约旦河西岸超过70%的水源。尽管如此,约旦河西岸和加沙地带的人均收入呈明显增长的趋势,60年代中期至80年代中期年均增长6%。境外劳务是约旦河西岸和加沙地带阿拉伯人的重要收入来源;1974年,约旦河西岸三分之一的劳动力和加沙地带40%的劳动力从事境外劳务,主要是在以色列从事劳务。进入80年代,海湾产油国成为巴勒斯坦境外劳务的另一重要去处,境外劳务的比例随之提高。1980年,约旦河西岸45%的劳动力和加沙地带54%的劳动力从事境外劳务。1987年,约旦河西岸52%的劳动力和加沙地带58%的劳动力从事境外劳务。境外劳务的经济结构,导致约旦河西岸和加沙地带服务业的长足发展。与此同时,劳动力的短缺和土地的丧失导致农业呈下降趋势。1967—1987年,农业产值仅占西岸和加沙地带总产值的5%~6%。1970—1987年,农业劳动力在西岸劳动力中所占的比例从42%下降为16%,在加沙地带劳动力中所占的比例从27%下降为11%。[841]
中东和平进程
所谓中东和平进程,特指阿以双方全面结束战争状态的历史进程。1977年6月,利库德集团领导人贝京出任以色列总理。同年8月,贝京在访问罗马尼亚期间,通过齐奥赛斯库总统邀请埃及总统萨达特访问以色列。9月,以色列外长达扬与埃及副总理哈桑·托哈米在摩洛哥首都拉巴特秘密会晤,商讨萨达特总统访问以色列的相关事宜。[842]11月,萨达特总统访问耶路撒冷,在以色列议会发表演讲,呼吁在以色列军队撤出被占阿拉伯领土和承认巴勒斯坦人权利的基础上全面实现阿以和平。[843]萨达特是首位访问以色列的阿拉伯国家领导人,萨达特总统访问耶路撒冷标志着阿以关系的重大转折,中东和平进程的序幕由此掀开。
1978年9月,在美国总统卡特的斡旋下,埃及总统萨达特与以色列总理贝京在戴维营达成初步协议,埃以之间首先结束战争状态,暂时搁置巴勒斯坦地位、耶路撒冷归属和戈兰高地问题的争议。1979年3月,萨达特总统与贝京总理在华盛顿正式签署协议,以色列政府承诺在1982年以前将第三次中东战争期间占领的西奈半岛归还埃及,埃及政府宣布与以色列建立外交关系并向以色列开放苏伊士运河和蒂朗海峡,联合国维和部队进驻埃以边界监督和平协议的执行。[844]戴维营协议和华盛顿协议的签署,奠定了中东和平进程的重要政治基础。
1984年,利库德集团与工党组成联合政府,致力于推动以色列与约旦的和平进程。1987年4月,时任以色列外长的工党领导人佩雷斯与约旦国王侯赛因签署伦敦协议,双方同意在接受联合国第242号决议和第338号决议的基础上举行和谈。1994年5月,拉宾与侯赛因国王在伦敦举行秘密会晤。同年7月,拉宾与侯赛因国王在华盛顿发表共同宣言,双方正式结束战争状态。10月,双方签署和平协议,建立外交关系。[845]
叙利亚是阿拉伯世界毗邻以色列的重要国家。1991年马德里和会结束后,拉宾领导的以色列政府开始寻求与叙利亚政府举行和谈。叙利亚政府坚持以色列必须遵守联合国242号决议即从戈兰高地撤军作为先决条件,以色列政府坚持以和平换和平作为谈判的基础。1992年,拉宾领导的以色列政府作出让步,试图通过从戈兰高地撤军换取双方的永久和平。[846]
1999年12月,美国总统克林顿、以色列总理巴拉克与叙利亚外长法鲁格·沙拉在白宫就领土、安全、水资源、外交关系、经济合作等问题举行三方会谈。2000年1月,巴拉克率领的以色列代表团与法鲁格·沙拉率领的叙利亚代表团再次在美国举行会谈。叙利亚要求以色列归还戈兰高地直至死海沿岸,遭到以色列的拒绝。随后,巴拉克提出建议,以色列军队撤出1967年占领的戈兰高地,同时用其他土地换取叙利亚放弃获得死海沿岸土地及水源的要求,作为实现叙以关系正常化的条件。2000年3月,克林顿与阿萨德在日内瓦举行会谈,然而阿萨德拒绝接受巴拉克的建议。[847]
1967年战争后,以色列占领包括约旦河西岸和加沙地带在内的整个巴勒斯坦,宣布耶路撒冷是以色列国的永久首都。在约旦河西岸,1967—1974年,4425处巴勒斯坦人房屋被毁;1987—1999年,2399处巴勒斯坦人房屋被毁。此间,14.5万巴勒斯坦人无家可归。另一方面,自70年代起,以色列政府不断在以军占领的约旦河西岸和耶路撒冷东区兴建犹太人定居点。[848]至1982年,生活在约旦河西岸定居点的犹太人达到2.5万,生活在耶路撒冷东区定居点的犹太人达到6.5万。[849]1997年,加沙地带有犹太人定居点14处,定居者6100人;戈兰高地有犹太人定居点32处,定居者17000人;约旦河西岸有犹太人定居点107处,定居者16.1万人;东耶路撒冷有犹太人定居者超过20万人。1997—1999年,以色列人在以军占领区建成房屋7350处,在建房屋2510处。2000年,40万犹太人居住在以军占领区。[850]
以色列政府在约旦河西岸和耶路撒冷东区兴建定居点的政策,导致巴勒斯坦人的反抗。1991年10月,美国、俄罗斯、沙特阿拉伯、以色列、叙利亚和巴解组织的代表在马德里召开会议,初步确定以色列政府与巴解组织举行和谈的政治框架。1992年,以色列的工党政府与巴解组织的代表在伦敦和奥斯陆进行非官方的秘密接触,继而在华盛顿首先就加沙的地位问题举行正式和谈。[851]1993 年5月,以色列政府与巴解组织的代表在奥斯陆达成协议,双方同意此后5年作为过渡期,由巴解组织组建临时过渡政府,负责管理第三次中东战争后以色列军队占领的约旦河西岸和加沙地带,直至在约旦河西岸和加沙地带举行大选,暂时搁置耶路撒冷归属问题的争议。[852]同年9月,以色列总理拉宾与巴解组织领导人阿拉法特在美国的戴维营签署和平协议,以色列政府同意巴解组织在加沙地带和约旦河西岸城市杰里科组建自治政府,以色列政府与巴解组织正式相互承认对方的合法地位,是为加沙—杰里科自治协议,亦称奥斯陆协议。奥斯陆协议签署后,俄罗斯、中国和一些阿拉伯国家与以色列建立外交关系。1994年5月,拉宾与阿拉法特在埃及共同发表开罗宣言,以色列政府将分阶段向巴解组织移交约旦河西岸和加沙地带的行政权力,直至完成从约旦河西岸和加沙地带的撤军行动。同年7月,阿拉法特和巴解组织领导机构自突尼斯移至加沙地带,筹建巴勒斯坦自治政府。1995年10月,以色列军队撤出除希布伦外的约旦河西岸6座城市。[853]
1996年5月,内塔尼亚胡出任以色列总理,拒绝接受奥斯陆协议,中东和谈陷入停滞状态。同年底,内塔尼亚胡领导的以色列政府与巴解组织签署希布伦协议,以色列政府承诺将10万巴勒斯坦人生活的希布伦大部分城区移交巴解组织,希布伦的小部分城区和400处犹太人定居点继续处于以色列政府的保护之下;与此同时,以色列政府承诺释放巴勒斯坦囚犯和通过谈判解决巴勒斯坦的永久地位问题,巴解组织承诺修改巴勒斯坦民族宪章,删除其中反对以色列的内容、扩大与以色列的安全合作、制止巴勒斯坦人的反以暴力活动、没收巴勒斯坦人的非法武器。1997年1月,以色列议会以87票赞成、17票反对和15票弃权的表决结果通过希布伦协议。1997年2月,内塔尼亚胡政府决定在耶路撒冷西南部巴以双方存在争议的哈尔霍马地区修建6500座住房作为犹太人的定居点。随后,哈马斯在耶路撒冷发动炸弹袭击,以色列政府则宣布冻结执行第二次奥斯陆协议并试图暗杀约旦境内的哈马斯领导人哈立德·马沙勒。[854]
1998年10月,内塔尼亚胡与阿拉法特在美国签署怀伊协议,以色列政府承诺继续从约旦河西岸撤军,巴解组织承诺制止巴勒斯坦人的暴力袭击,双方恢复关于巴勒斯坦永久地位的谈判。1999年5月,时任以色列总理的工党领导人巴拉克与阿拉法特在埃及签署沙姆沙伊赫备忘录,批准怀伊协议,制定巴以和谈的时间表。2000年7月,美国总统克林顿邀请巴拉克与阿拉法特在戴维营举行会晤,巴拉克试图通过进一步归还领土实现与巴勒斯坦的永久和平,阿拉法特则要求建立独立的巴勒斯坦国、解决难民回归问题、控制约旦河西岸和加沙、明确耶路撒冷东区作为巴勒斯坦国首都,双方谈判破裂。[855]2000年9月,沙龙视察耶路撒冷的圣殿山,引发巴勒斯坦人的第二次起义。2001年2月,巴拉克辞职,沙龙以62%的选票当选以色列总理。沙龙放弃长期以来的巴以和谈,致力于高压政策,对于约旦河西岸和加沙的巴勒斯坦控制区采取军事打击,巴以局势骤然紧张。[856]
【注释】
[1]Lindsay,J.E.,Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World,p.101.
[2]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,Cambridge 2002,p.12.
[3]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,p.139.
[4]Owen,R.,The Mid dle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.184.
[5]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,London 1994,p.434.
[6]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,Cambridge 2007,p.34.
[7]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,Boulder 1985,p.31.
[8]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.436.
[9]圣雷莫会议于1920年4月在意大利的圣雷莫召开。根据会议期间签署的协议,叙利亚和黎巴嫩成为法国政府的委任统治地,伊拉克和巴勒斯坦成为英国政府的委任统治地。
[10]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.33.
[11]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.40.
[12]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,pp.41-42.
[13]同上,p.43。
[14]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.45,p.47.
[15]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.438.
[16]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.440.
[17]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.38-39.
[18]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.440.
[19]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.440.
[20]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.70.
[21]1922年,协约国与土耳其在瑞士洛桑召开会议,1923年签署洛桑条约,确定奥斯曼帝国灭亡后土耳其共和国的政治疆域。
[22]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.59.
[23]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,London 1996,p.6.
[24]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.66.
[25]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.70.
[26]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.34.
[27]麦加沙里夫侯赛因系哈希姆家族后裔,于1916年在阿拉伯半岛发动反抗奥斯曼帝国统治的民族起义,攻占希贾兹,自称阿拉伯国王,继而委派其子费萨尔在叙利亚发动起义,1918年占领大马士革。1920年,叙利亚国民大会拥立费萨尔出任国王,旋即遭到法军的镇压。是为阿拉伯大起义。
[28]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.71-73.
[29]同上,pp.71-73。
[30]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.31.
[31]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.73-74.
[32]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.47.
[33]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.73.
[34]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the Firse World War,p.81,p.77.
[35]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.47.
[36]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.77.
[37]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.441.
[38]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.74.
[39]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.441,p.650.
[40]Sluglett,M.F.,Iraq Since 1958:From Revolution to Dictatorship,London 1990,p.7.
[41]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.40.
[42]同上,p.52,p.57。
[43]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.443.
[44]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.71.
[45]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.73,p.79.
[46]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.443.
[47]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.445,p.443.
[48]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.82,p.83.
[49]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.72.
[50]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.445.
[51]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.74.
[52]同上,p.73,p75。
[53]同上,pp.77-78。
[54]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.13.
[55]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,pp.448-449.
[56]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.469.
[57]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.112.
[58]同上,p.82。
[59]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.449.
[60]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,New York 1997,p.100.
[61]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.21.
[62]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.97.
[63]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.26.
[64]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,pp.86-87.
[65]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.99.
[66]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.94.
[67]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.115.
[68]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.116.
[69]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.100.
[70]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In f luence 1941-1958,p.19.
[71]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.100-101.
[72]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.120.
[73]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.101.
[74]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.121.
[75]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.103.
[76]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.123.
[77]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.126-127.
[78]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.19.
[79]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.104.
[80]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.28.
[81]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.129-130.
[82]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.111.
[83]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.105.
[84]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.132.
[85]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.134-135.
[86]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.114.
[87]同上,p.114。
[88]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.137.
[89]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.117-118.
[90]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.119.
[91]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.107.
[92]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.123.
[93]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,pp.107-108.
[94]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.20.
[95]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.145.
[96]同上,p.141。
[97]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.83.
[98]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.155.
[99]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.233.
[100]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.144.
[101]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.123
[102]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.158.
[103]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.161.
[104]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.151-152.
[105]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.159-162.
[106]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.234.
[107]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.162-163.
[108]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.158.
[109]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.167-168.
[110]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.234.
[111]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.157.
[112]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.121.
[113]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.165.
[114]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.124.
[115]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.160.
[116]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.167.
[117]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.160.
[118]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.64.
[119]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.432.
[120]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.40.
[121]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.54,p.59.
[122]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.6.
[123]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.67.
[124]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.66.
[125]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.79.
[126]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.177-178.
[127]同上,pp.164-165。
[128]同上,p.165。
[129]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.166.
[130]同上,p.164。
[131]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.180.
[132]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of A f rica and the Middle East,p.129.
[133]Sluglett,M.F.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.89.
[134]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.143.
[135]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.92.
[136]Sluglett,M.F.,Iraq Since 1958,p.90.
[137]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.162.
[138]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.184.
[139]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.175,p.185.
[140]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.238.
[141]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.190.
[142]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.176.
[143]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.188-191.
[144]同上,p.183。
[145]同上,p.186。
[146]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.240.
[147]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.193.
[148]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.182.
[149]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.196,p.197.
[150]同上,p.187,pp.198-199。
[151]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.246.
[152]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.187-188.
[153]同上,p.189。
[154]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.207.
[155]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.241.
[156]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.190.
[157]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.209.
[158]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.191.
[159]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.212.
[160]同上,pp.219-220,p.212。
[161]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.193.
[162]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.214-216.
[163]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.209.
[164]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.214-215.
[165]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.199.
[166]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.222.
[167]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.246.
[168]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.212-213.
[169]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.187.
[170]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.214.
[171]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.655.
[172]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.211.
[173]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.219.
[174]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East since the First World War,p.242.
[175]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.228-229.
[176]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of Af rica and the Middle East,p.126.
[177]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.232.
[178]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.184.
[179]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.226.
[180]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.226.
[181]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.241.
[182]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.185.
[183]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.246.
[184]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.208.
[185]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.238.
[186]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.227.
[187]Cardosa,A.V.,Iraq at the Crossroads,New York 2007,p.117.
[188]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.244-245.
[189]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.220-221.
[190]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.293.
[191]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.233.
[192]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,pp.100-101.
[193]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.236.
[194]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.271.
[195]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.239.
[196]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.658.
[197]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.235.
[198]同上,pp.220-221。
[199]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.293.
[200]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.233.
[201]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,pp.100-101.
[202]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.236.
[203]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.271.
[204]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.239.
[205]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.658.
[206]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.235.
[207]Inati,S.C.,Iraq:Its History,People and Politics,New York 2003,p.221.
[208]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.660.
[209]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:from Revolution to Dictatorship,p.273.
[210]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.125.
[211]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.126.
[212]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.252-253.
[213]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.127.
[214]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.253.
[215]同上,p.262。
[216]Stansfield,G.R.V.,Iraq:People,History,Politics,p.149.
[217]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.280-281.
[218]Simons,G.,Iraq:From Sumer to Post-Saddam,New York 2004,pp.83-84.
[219]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.457-458.
[220]Cardosa,A.V.,Iraq at the Crossroads,p.21.
[221]Simons,G.,Iraq:From Sumer to Post-Saddam,p.35,p.52.
[222]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.661.
[223]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.275-276.
[224]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.282-283.
[225]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.202.
[226]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,pp.203-204.
[227]Dekmejian,R.H.,Islam in Revolution:Fundamentalism in the Arab World,p.121.
[228]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,pp.198-199.
[229]Yapp,M. E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.247.
[230]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.236.
[231]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.204.
[232]同上,pp.244-245。
[233]同上,p.247。
[234]同上,pp.255-256,pp.270-271。
[235]Anderson,L.&Stansfield,G.,The Future of Iraq:Dictatorship,Democracy or Division,p.172.
[236]Tripp,C.,A Histroy of Iraq,pp.272-274.
[237]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.247.
[238]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.236.
[239]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.258,p.260.
[240]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,pp.182-183,p.275.
[241]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.3.
[242]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.266.
[243]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.130.
[244]Owen,R.,The Mid dle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.273.
[245]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.36.
[246]Issawi,C.,An Economic History of the Middle East and North Af rica,p.31.
[247]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.267.
[248]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.51.
[249]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.131.
[250]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.51.
[251]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.259.
[252]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,p.143.
[253]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,pp.31-32.
[254]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.136.
[255]Gerber.H.,The Social Origins of the Modern Middle East,p.95.
[256]Beinin,J.,Workers and Peasants in the Modern Middle East,p.120.
[257]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.34.
[258]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.432.
[259]Gerber.H.,The Social Origins of the Modern Mid dle East,p.95
[260]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.132.
[261]同上,p.170。
[262]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq,p.121.
[263]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.170.
[264]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,Harvard 1999,p.164.
[265]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.171.
[266]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.155.
[267]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.165.
[268]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.240.
[269]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.167.
[270]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.278.
[271]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.236.
[272]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.241.
[273]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.167.
[274]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.241-242.
[275]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.236.
[276]Hopkins,N.S.&Ibrahim,S.E.,Arab Society:Class,Gender,Power and Development,Cairo 1997,p.368.
[277]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.169.
[278]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.260,p.171,p.259.
[279]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.443.
[280]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.71.
[281]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.248.
[282]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.128-129.
[283]同上,p.129。
[284]Elliot,M.,Independent Iraq:The Monarchy and British In fluence 1941-1958,p.32.
[285]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.174.
[286]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.207.
[287]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.654.
[288]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.76.
[289]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.72.
[290]Tripp,C.,A History of Iraq,p.128.
[291]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.162.
[292]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.252-253.
[293]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.260.
[294]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.237.
[295]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.166.
[296]Cardosa,A.V.,Iraq at the Crossroads,p.2.
[297]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,p.60.
[298]同上,p.58,p.62。
[299]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.270.
[300]Haj,S.,The Making of Iraq 1900-1963,pp.63-64.
[301]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.132.
[302]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.250.
[303]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.221.
[304]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,pp.165-166.
[305]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.256-257.
[306]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.233.
[307]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.244.
[308]Long,D.E.&Reich,B.,The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Af rica,Boulder 1995,p.105.
[309]Hopkins,N.S.&Ibrahim,S.E.,Arab Society:Class,Gender,Power and Development,p.368.
[310]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.273.
[311]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,p.144.
[312]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.238.
[313]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.227,p.246.
[314]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.69.
[315]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.34.
[316]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.170.
[317]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.247.
[318]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.271.
[319]Sluglett,M.F.&Sluglett,P.,Iraq Since 1958:f rom Revolution to Dictatorship,p.246.
[320]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.232.
[321]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.271.
[322]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.168.
[323]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.76.
[324]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.138.
[325]同上,pp.248-249。
[326]Schaffer,D.,The History of Nations:Iraq,pp.160-161.
[327]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.76.
[328]Schaffer,D.,The History of Nations:Iraq,San Diego 2004,pp.162-163.
[329]Cardosa,A.V.,Iraq at the Crossroads,p.116.
[330]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,p.261.
[331]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.245.
[332]Marr,P.,The Modern History of Iraq,pp.263-264.
[333]Inati,S.C.,Iraq:Its History,People and Politics,p.228.
[334]Inati,S.C.,Iraq:Its History,People and Politics,pp.215-218,p.223.
[335]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986:Politics and Society,London 1988,p.1.
[336]Khater,A.F.,Sources in the History of the Modern Middle East,pp.201-202.
[337]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.434.
[338]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.86.
[339]同上,p.88。
[340]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.403.
[341]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.438.
[342]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.94.
[343]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.471.
[344]Torrey,G.T.,Syrian Politics and the Military 1945-1958,Ohio 1964,pp.35-38.
[345]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.98.
[346]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.81.
[347]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.410.
[348]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.81.
[349]同上,p.84。
[350]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.415.
[351]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.85.
[352]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.102.
[353]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.84.
[354]同上,p.83,p.88。
[355]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,London 1986,p.23.
[356]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.83.
[357]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.414.
[358]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.32.
[359]Moubayed,S. M.,Damascus Between Democracy and Dictatorship,Maryland 2000,p.8,p.38,pp.18-19.
[360]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.40.
[361]Moubayed,S.M.,Damascus Between Democracy and Dictatorship,pp.35-36.
[362]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.412.
[363]Moubayed,S.M.,Damascus Between Democracy and Dictatorship,pp.53-56.
[364]Moubayed,S.M.,Damascus Between Democracy and Dictatorship,p.60,pp.74-75,pp.77-78,p.84,p.91.
[365]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,pp.35-36.
[366]Moubayed,S.M.,Damascus Between Democracy and Dictatorship,p.91.
[367]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.37.
[368]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.638.
[369]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.37.
[370]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.419.
[371]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.252.
[372]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.422.
[373]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,pp.201-202.
[374]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,New York 2001,p.2.
[375]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,p.203,p.209.
[376]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.88.
[377]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.21.
[378]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.244.
[379]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.44.
[380]Antoun,R.T.&Quataert,D.,Syria:Society,Culture and Polity,New York 1991,p.33.
[381]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,London 2001,p.48.
[382]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.45.
[383]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.49.
[384]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.424.
[385]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.46.
[386]同上,p.47。
[387]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.52.
[388]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.426.
[389]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.256.
[390]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.59.
[391]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.25.
[392]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.55.
[393]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,New York 1995,p.136.
[394]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.249.
[395]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.41.
[396]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.9.
[397]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.66.
[398]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.27.
[399]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East,p.283.
[400]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.426.
[401]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.261.
[402]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.168.
[403]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of A f rica and the Middle East,p.283.
[404]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,pp.169-170,p.167.
[405]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.460.
[406]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.78,p.84.
[407]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.141.
[408]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,pp.26-27.
[409]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.155.
[410]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.27.
[411]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.163.
[412]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution f rom Above,p.66.
[413]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.262.
[414]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.254.
[415]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.56.
[416]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.140.
[417]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.249.
[418] Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.427.
[419]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.26.
[420]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,pp.155-156.
[421]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.253.
[422]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.156,p.154.
[423]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,pp.80-82.
[424]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.155,p.173.
[425]同上,p.147。
[426]Hinnebusch,R.A.,Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba’thist Sy ria,Westpoint 1990,p.29.
[427]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.148.
[428]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.256,p.262.
[429]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.253.
[430]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.70.
[431]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.20.
[432]Perthes,V.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.71.
[433]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.71.
[434]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.20.
[435]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.96,p.95.
[436]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.66.
[437]Dekmejian,R.H.,Islam in Revolution:Fundamentalism in the Arab World,p.106.
[438]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.94.
[439]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.263.
[440]Dekmejian,R.H.,Islam in Revolution:Fundamentalism in the Arab World,p.112.
[441]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.96,p.95.
[442]同上,p.99。
[443]Dekmejian,R.H.,Islam in Revolution:Fundamentalism in the Arab World,p.109.
[444]Posusney,M. P.&Angrist,M. P.,Authoritarianism in the Middle East:Regimes and Resistance,Boulder 2005,p.50.
[445]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.137.
[446]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.249.
[447]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.264-265.
[448]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.255.
[449]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.428.
[450]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.34.
[451]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.257.
[452]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.428.
[453]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.31.
[454]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.429.
[455]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.181,pp.183-184.
[456]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.200,p.184,p.196,p.202.
[457]同上,p.186。
[458]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.187.
[459]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.108.
[460]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.253.
[461]同上,p.252。
[462]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.29.
[463]Yapp,M.E.,The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923,p.132.
[464]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.156,p.250,p.260,p.247,p.29.
[465]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.416.
[466]Antoun,R.T.&Quataert,D.,Syria:Society,Culture and Polity,p.64.
[467]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.100.
[468]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.26.
[469]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986:Politics and Society,p.108,p.105.
[470]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.38,p.48.
[471]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,pp.46-47.
[472]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.258.
[473]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,pp.49-50.
[474]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.21.
[475]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.257-258.
[476]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria under Asad,p.81.
[477]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.120.
[478]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.81.
[479]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.106.
[480]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.82.
[481]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.115.
[482]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.172.
[483]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.268.
[484]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.26.
[485]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.153.
[486]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.55.
[487]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.40.
[488]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.259.
[489]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.54.
[490]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.58.
[491]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.112.
[492]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.51.
[493]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.25,p.30.
[494]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.45,p.42.
[495]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.257.
[496]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.26.
[497]同上,p.37。
[498]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.110.
[499]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.40.
[500]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.125.
[501]Niblock,T.&Murphy,E.,Economic and Political Liberalization in the Mid dle East,pp.181-182.
[502]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.128.
[503]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.43.
[504]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution f rom Above,p.130.
[505]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.461.
[506]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution f rom Above,p.134.
[507]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.61.
[508]Harik,I.and Sullivan,D.J.,Privatization and Liberalization in the Middle East,Indiana 1992,p.133.
[509]Niblock,T.&Murphy,E.,Economic and Political Liberalization in the Mid dle East,p.193.
[510]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,pp.60-61.
[511]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.255.
[512]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.134.
[513]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.60.
[514]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Syria in Transition,p.189.
[515]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution from Above,p.135.
[516]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.59.
[517]Zisser,E.,Asad’s Legacy:Sy ria in Transition,pp.189-193.
[518]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,p.237.
[519]Grunwald,K.&Ronall,J.O.,Industrialization in the Mid dle East,p.27.
[520]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.260.
[521]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.23.
[522]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.37.
[523]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.255.
[524]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.405.
[525]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.37.
[526]Owen,R.,The Mid dle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.244.
[527]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.85.
[528]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.71.
[529]Saqqaf,A.Y.,The Middle East City:Ancient Traditions Con front a Modern World,New York 1987.
[530]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.72.
[531]Antoun,R.T.,Syria:Society,Culture and Polity,p.2.
[532]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.38.
[533]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.23.
[534]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.645.
[535]Ma’oz,M.&Yaniv,A.,Syria Under Assad:Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks,p.38.
[536]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution f rom Above,p.56.
[537]Issawi,C.,The Fertile Crescent 1800-1914:A Documentary Economic History,p.31.
[538]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.102.
[539]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.121.
[540]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.102.
[541]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.41.
[542]Antoun,R.T.,Syria:Society,Culture and Polity,pp.36-37.
[543]Ma’oz,M.,Syria Under Assad,p.41.
[544]Perthes,V.,The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad,p.23.
[545]Hinnebusch,R.,Syria:Revolution f rom Above,pp.55-56.
[546]Antoun,R.T.,Syria:Society,Culture and Polity,p.37.
[547]Zamir,M.,The Formation of Modern Lebanon,London 1985,p.8.
[548]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,London 2007,p.3,pp.7-8,pp.9-10.
[549]Zamir,M.,The Formation of Modern Lebanon,pp.8-9.
[550]Miller,W.,The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913,p.305.
[551]Sharabi,H.B.,Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century,Connectucut 1987,p.106.
[552]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.104.
[553]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.365.
[554]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.105.
[555]Hitti,P.K.,A Short History of Lebanon,New York 1965,pp.220-221.
[556]Kanaan,C.B.,Lebanon 1860-1960:A Century of Myth and Politics,London 2007,pp.134-135.
[557]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,London 2007,pp.100-101.
[558]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.49.
[559]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.64.
[560]Kanaan,C.B.,Lebanon 1860-1960:A Century of Myth and Politics,London 2007,p.135.
[561]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.109.
[562]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.263.
[563]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.106.
[564]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.109.
[565]同上,pp.110-111。
[566]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.373.
[567]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.106.
[568]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.374,p.376.
[569]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.629.
[570]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.384.
[571]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.112-113.
[572]Hopwood,D.,Syria 1945-1986,p.82.
[573]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.385.
[574]同上,p.375。
[575]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,pp.128-130.
[576]同上,p.134,p.137。
[577]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,pp.380-381.
[578]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.266.
[579]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.140.
[580]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,pp.144-145,p.155.
[581]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.235.
[582]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.264.
[583]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,pp.387-388.
[584]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.268.
[585]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.630.
[586]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.183.
[587]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,pp.269-270.
[588]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.269.
[589]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.390.
[590]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.269-270.
[591]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.392.
[592]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.270.
[593]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.271.
[594]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.393.
[595]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.272.
[596]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.393.
[597]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,pp.220-221.
[598]同上,p.221。
[599]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.272.
[600]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.396.
[601]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.273.
[602]同上,p.274。
[603]Davidson,L.,Islamic Fundamentalism,p.66.
[604]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.178,p.181.
[605]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.275.
[606]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.394.
[607]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.275.
[608]Davidson,L.,Islamic Fundamentalism,p.66.
[609]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.229.
[610]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.275.
[611]Richards,A.&Waterbury,J.,A Political Economy of the Middle East,Boulder 1990,p.97.
[612]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.226.
[613]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.278.
[614]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.398.
[615]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.278,p.465.
[616]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.243.
[617]同上,p.245。
[618]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.466.
[619]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.636.
[620]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.466.
[621]Ismeal,T.Y.,Middle East Politics Today:Government and Civil Society,p.281.
[622]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.8.
[623]Kedourie,E.&Haim,S.G.,Essays on the Economic History of the Middle East,London 1988,p.21.
[624]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.157.
[625]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.45
[626]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.46.
[627]Owen,R.,The Middle East in the World Economy 1800-1914,p.155,p.157,p.249.
[628]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,p.46.
[629]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,pp.45-51.
[630]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.67.
[631]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.158.
[632]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.69,p.94.
[633]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.46.
[634]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.160.
[635]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.361.
[636]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.114.
[637]Taraboulsi,F.,A History of Modern Lebanon,pp.161-162.
[638]Gaspard,T.,A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948-2002,p.213.
[639]Salibi,K.S.,The Modern History of Jordan,London 1993,p.8.
[640]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,Cambridge 2004,pp.5-6,p.9,p.10,p.11.
[641]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.14,p.16.
[642]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.140,p.142.
[643]同上,p.143。
[644]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.344.
[645]Wilson,R.,Politics and the Economy in Jordan,London 1991,p.186.
[646]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.36.
[647]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.143.
[648]Wilson,R.,Politics and the Economy in Jordan,pp.186-187.
[649]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.539.
[650]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.347.
[651]Wilson,R.,Politics and the Economy in Jordan,p.188.
[652]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.295.
[653]Salibi,K.S.,The Modern History of Jordan,p.177.
[654]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.296.
[655]Salibi,K.S.,The Modern History of Jordan,p.190.
[656]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,pp.352-353.
[657]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.296.
[658]同上,p.297。
[659]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.295.
[660]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.349.
[661]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.291-292.
[662]Bligh,A.,The Political Legacy of King Hussein,Sussex 2002,p.96.
[663]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.298.
[664]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.130-132.
[665]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.357.
[666]Salibi,K.S.,The Modern History of Jordan,pp.268-269.
[667]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.357.
[668]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.353.
[669]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,pp.550-551.
[670]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.358.
[671]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.191.
[672]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.357.
[673]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.294.
[674]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.154.
[675]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.169-170.
[676]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,Boulder 2002,pp.20-21.
[677]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.294.
[678]Ghadbian,N.,Democratization and the Islamist Challenge in the Arab World,Boulder 1997,p.122.
[679]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.22.
[680]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.172-173.
[681]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.174-175.
[682]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.358.
[683]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,pp.27-28,p.26.
[684]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.189.
[685]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,London 1996,p.473.
[686]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.28.
[687]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.18,p.31,p.30,p.34,p.37.
[688]Bligh,A.,The Political Legacy of King Hussein,pp.208-209.
[689]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.99.
[690]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.5-6.
[691]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.62.
[692]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.140.
[693]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,p.85.
[694]Winckler,O.,Population Growth and Migration in Jordan 1950-1994,Sussex 1988,p.104,p.106,p.107.
[695]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.62.
[696]Hershlag,Z.Y.,Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East,pp.267-268.
[697]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.354.
[698]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.112-113.
[699]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.189.
[700]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.124-125.
[701]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p189.
[702]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.292.
[703]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:f rom Hussein to Abdullah,p.49.
[704]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.191.
[705]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.187,p.189.
[706]Wilson,R.,Politics and the Economy in Jordan,p.65.
[707]Robins,P.,A History of Jordan,pp.144-145.
[708]同上,p.144。
[709]Winckler,O.,Population Growth and Migration in Jordan 1950-1994,p.99,p.79,p.100.
[710]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:f rom Hussein to Abdullah,p.40.
[711]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.293.
[712]同上,p.141。
[713]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.354.
[714]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.293.
[715]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.567.
[716]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.293.
[717]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.191.
[718]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.52.
[719]Joffé,E.G.H.,Jordan in Transition,London 2002,p.228,p.230.
[720]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.56.
[721]Joffé,E.G.H.,Jordan in Transition,p.232.
[722]Ryan,C.R.,Jordan in Transition:from Hussein to Abdullah,p.117.
[723]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,New York 1996,p.18.
[724]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.116.
[725]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.282.
[726]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.116-117.
[727]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.19-20.
[728]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.282.
[729]同上,p.277。
[730]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.4.
[731]锡安指锡安山,位于耶路撒冷城内,相传是耶和华居住的圣地。锡安主义特指犹太复国主义。
[732]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.6-7,p.16.
[733]Goldschmidt,A.,A Concise History of the Middle East,Boulder 1991,p.242.
[734]Gelvin,J.L.,The Modern Middle East:A History,Oxford 2005,p.217,p.208.
[735]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.65-66.
[736]Goldschmidt,A.,A Concise History of the Middle East,p.245.
[737]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,New York 2003,p.8,p.10,p.20,p.23,p.26.
[738]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.118.
[739]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.57.
[740]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.117.
[741]Cleveland,W.L.,A History of the Modern Middle East,p.255.
[742]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.120.
[743]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.155.
[744]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.451.
[745]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.190.
[746] Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.59.
[747]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.533.
[748]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.119.
[749]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.455.
[750]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.57.
[751]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.120,p.118.
[752]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.121-122.
[753]同上,p.122。
[754]同上,pp.125-126,p.128。
[755]同上,p.130。
[756]Polk,W.R.,The Arab World Today,Harvard 1991,p.171.
[757]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.458,p.472.
[758]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.135.
[759]Chtterji,N.C.,A History of Modern Middle East,New Delhi 1987,p.75.
[760]Polk,W.R.,The Arab World Today,Harvard 1991,p.177,p.179,p.182.
[761]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.301.
[762]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.359.
[763]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.302.
[764]Gilbar,G.G.,Population Dilemmas in the Middle East,London 1997,p.12
[765]Kamrava,M.,The Modern Middle East:A Political History Since the First World War,p.225.
[766]Gelvin,J.L.,The Modern Middle East:A History,Oxford 2005,p.274.
[767]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.306.
[768]Polk,W.R.,The Arab World Today,p.242.
[769]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.305.
[770]同上,p.307。
[771]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.218.
[772]Davidson,L.,Islamic Fundamentalism,p.69,p.70.
[773]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,pp.475-477.
[774]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East,p.134.
[775]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.284.
[776]同上,p.286。
[777]Medding,P.Y.,Mapai in Israel:Political Organization and Government in a New Society,London 1972,p.15.
[778]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.63,p.76,p.81.
[779]East,R.&Joseph,T.,Political Parties of A f rica and the Middle East,p.132.
[780]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.285.
[781]同上,p.284。
[782]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.316.
[783]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.287.
[784]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.166.
[785]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.325.
[786]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.569,p.571.
[787]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.254.
[788]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.572.
[789]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.277.
[790]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.377-378.
[791]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.289.
[792]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.572.
[793]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.395.
[794]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.75.
[795]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.178.
[796]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.403.
[797]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.72.
[798]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.415.
[799]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.280.
[800]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.544.
[801]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.516.
[802]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.280.
[803]同上,p.281。
[804]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.397.
[805]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.72.
[806]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.415.
[807]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.280.
[808]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.328.
[809]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.538.
[810]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.225.
[811]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.328.
[812]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.230.
[813]同上,p.94。
[814]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.281.
[815]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.540.
[816]Peretz,D.,The Middle East Today,p.329.
[817]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.409,p.517.
[818]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.543.
[819]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.517.
[820]同上,p.518。
[821]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.528.
[822]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.284.
[823]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.522-523.
[824]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.282.
[825]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.78.
[826]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.178.
[827]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.282.
[828]同上,p.283。
[829]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,pp.412-413.
[830]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.284.
[831]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.543.
[832]Yapp,M.E.,The Near East Since the First World War,p.283.
[833]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,pp.184-185.
[834]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.570.
[835]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.517.
[836]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.564.
[837]Sachar,H.M.,A History of Isreal,p.383.
[838]Gilbar,G.G.,Population Dilemmas in the Middle East,p.18.
[839]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.73.
[840]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,pp.194-195.
[841]Owen,R.,A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century,p.196.
[842]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.171.
[843]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.566.
[844]同上,p.566。
[845]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,pp.213-214,p.251.
[846]同上,p.244。
[847]同上,pp.265-267。
[848]Gelvin,J.L.,The Modern Middle East:A History,Oxford 2005,p.273.
[849]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,p.566.
[850]Kamrava,M.,The Modern Middle East:A Political History Since the First World War,pp.235-236.
[851]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.240.
[852]Gelvin,J.L.,The Modern Middle East:History,p.275.
[853]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,p.249,p.252.
[854]Bregman,A.,A History of Isreal,pp.255-257.
[855]同上,p.260,p.264,p.271。
[856]Ochsenwald,W.,The Middle East:A History,pp.578-579.
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