二、经济类文本中的隐喻机制
要对商务用途英语中经济类文本里的隐喻有一个深入理解,首先有必要对商务用途英语的定义有一个清晰的概念。商务用途英语是指以服务于商务活动内容为目标、集实用性、专业性和明确的目的性于一身、为广大从事国际商务活动的人们所认同和接受,并具备较强社会功能的一种英语变体。在当今经济不断发展、国际商务活动日益频繁的世界里,包括技术引进、对外贸易、招商引资、对外劳务承包与合同、国际金融、涉外保险、国际旅游、海外投资、国际运输、商业广告等在内的商务活动,无不涉及英语的使用,在所有这些活动中所使用的英语都统称为商务用途英语(李明,2004a:32)。
商务用途英语发展成为一种新兴的语言变体,主要是基于普通用途英语(English for General Purposes)。作为商务用途英语中重要部分的经济类文本,亦是基于普通用途英语。换言之,所有经济类文本都是普通用途英语应用于新的领域的一种语言变体。这种将语言的使用从一个领域应用或跨越到另一个领域本身就具有隐喻意义。更何况,经济类文本中借用了大量日常用语讨论、阐述、描写与经济活动有关的概念或事件。
Henderson(1994:358)也认为,是隐喻所具有的生成力使得日常词汇可以用于讨论、阐述、描写与经济活动有关的概念。经济类文本中所含有的大量简单和复杂的隐喻,无不说明了这一点,如:markets are bullish and bearish(各种市场行情看涨/行情下跌),profits soar,peak,dive and plummet(利润飙升/达到巅峰/急剧下降/骤然下跌),banks employ a scorched-earth policy in the face of hostile take-over bids(各家银行在盘进出价的各个对手面前采取了焦土政策)。上述例子中,英语的斜体部分均是日常用词,但在这里它们均用于描写或阐述与经济活动有关的概念,它们在日常用语中的意义在此均已延伸,因而属于隐喻用法。
还有一种情况,在经济类文本中,有相当数量的词语原本属于隐喻,但因长期使用而变成了约定俗成的表达法,因而现在人们往往将它们看作专门术语(technical terms)而不是“鲜活的隐喻”(live metaphors)了。这类术语有equilibrium,float,inflation,leakage,boom,liquidity,slump等,它们已经成为从事商务活动或经济活动的人们经常使用的行话,原先的隐喻词源已不再明显了。
Indurkhya(1992:1)将隐喻分为三种:约定俗成的隐喻(conventional metaphors),基于近似性的隐喻(similarity-based metaphors)和创造近似性的隐喻(similarity-creating metaphors)。
约定俗成的隐喻是指由于长期使用而成为日常用语中的一部分、因而看上去几乎不再具有显性隐喻性的那些隐喻。在经济类文本中,我们通常将它们看作专门术语而非隐喻。如,在I need a decision fast.We'rerunning out of time两句话中,“时间”(time)被看作有限的资源或宝贵的商品,它曾经是隐喻,但现在,由于人们长期使用,不再想到或认为它具有隐喻性。再如,...the Fed has allowed the stock market bubble to develop...,to raise interest rates to deflate a bubble in its early stages...most central bankers are hostile to the idea to try to puncture bubbles...,central bankers offer three reasons why they should not attempt to prick bubbles...在英语中,人们讲bubble(泡沫),在汉语中,人们也讲“泡沫经济”,这些都已经习以为常。由于它被广泛接受,bubble一词连带汉语中的“泡沫经济”,已变成约定俗成的隐喻。
基于近似性的隐喻会让读者对于本体和喻体进行比较,因为对它们意义的转换是基于两者之间所存在的某些相似点(Indurkhya,1992:2)。如:If private funding really dries up,we will be out of the market.读到这个英文句子,读者很自然地就会将资金的停止供给比作水源已经枯竭的河流或者湖泊。
创造性近似性的隐喻是指,读者在刚刚见到该隐喻时,很难找到本体和喻体之间有任何近似点,但经过仔细斟酌和推敲才发现或找到本体和喻体之间的确存在相似点。这类隐喻在术语学中扮演着重要角色。比如,人们利用storm和enemy之间的关系来描述“通货膨胀”这一概念。
以上三种类型的隐喻在经济类文本中大量存在,这些隐喻往往基于以下隐喻机制:
1.将经济视为有机体,如economic growth,in today's infant electronic commerce market,the infant car industries,healthy economy,economic disease,economic cure,economic decay,ailing industrial companies,an overrich diet of cheap capital,the recovery of the economy,a depressed economy,the economy will wake up in a sweat,businesses have been limping along,the Japanese economy's painful progress from boom to bust,interest rates are set according to the economy's temperature today,poor countries are hobbled by a lack of know-how等。就像有机体,经济也有生老病死,也有情绪波动,并会呈现出有机体所呈现的各种活动方式,如recovery,healthy,limping along/hobble,sweat,depressed等。另外,很多时候经济被看作被动的实体,其状态往往受决定的正确与否所影响。这一观念使得经济学家们把自己看作医生或者外科医生,他们影响着经济活动的动向。
2.将经济视为船只,如...Mr.Grasso needed further warning that he is steering a potential Titanic,but the fattest rats have been preparing to jump ship......in this increasingly foggy world,the chances of navigational errors are high,and new hazards are looming which the navigators,still euphoric about their defeat of inflation,have been slow to spot...the seas ahead could get much rougher...在此情况下,中央银行的行长就是船长(captain),其助手就是其船员(crew),大海就是一个国家所处的社会经济环境(socio-economic environment),大海中的暗礁(reefs)和风暴(storms)就是经济中的危急关头,航海的用具如锚(anchor)、指南针(compasses)和地图(maps)则是指导方针或指令。
3.将各类经济组织类比为家庭成员之间的关系、类比为各种类型的人员或者传说中人们根深蒂固的形象(legendary stereotypes),如the parent/mother company,the sister company,the daughter company,the holding company,the leading market player in Europe,the stakeholder,the company doctor,giant或the White Knight(指“援助某个公司使之不被其他公司接管的公司”)等。这类表达隐喻各种组织之间所呈现的关系以及所实施的人的行为。
4.将市场视为流体或者球体,如the currency float,a huge float of change,buoyant demand,buoyant consumer spending,the market bounces around and rebounds...这样表达可以隐喻经济市场上的瞬息万变。
5.将下滑的市场运动视为自然灾害,如Rita's commissions began to dry up as her clients quit her for a better deal,the river of gold will soon run dry,to channel state subsidies to millions of farmers,the outlook for the stock market will remain cloudy,the outlook for the coal industry is bleak,the banks'worst days were behind them...同自然灾害一样,市场下滑给受灾的人们带来灾难。
6.将市场视为游乐园(fun fair),如to halt a slide in sales,to continue their slide against the dollar,to have a rollercoaster ride,to profit from swings...这类说法通过游乐园中娱乐设施的方向运动来隐喻经济的运行状况。
7.将股票市场视为剧院,如:that the stock market players operate according to a predictable and predetermined scenario...这里,股票市场被隐喻为同戏剧一样,具有极大的可变性和不可预测性。
8.将各种类型的商人视为各种类型的动物,如bear,bear run,bearish,bear trap,bear total,bull,bullish,bull total,runaway,gallop,horse total,lame duck,cat and mouse,stag,prey,predator,hunter total,headhunter,head-hunting...通过各种动物的状态、性情、运动方式等来描述经济活动的运行状态、性质、运动方式等。
9.将经济竞争视为战争,如trade wars,the war between Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola has been raging for years,Carrefour could still be vulnerable to a hostile bid,local banks are fighting back,local cigarette makers are up in arms,to fend off hedge funds,it could torpedo the merger itself,Rába was shielded from foreign takeover...,隐喻经济活动中你死我活的争斗。
10.用有灵的实体(animate entities)来描述无生命的实体,如Hungary's Rába and Icarus court foreign investors...,no foreign suitors have stepped forward as yet...,Netia needs a mobile partner...there is one boy on the dance floor and two lovely girls...the question is who will go to bed with whom...,the odd couple(two Poland's leading banks)damaged bride(Poland's)...,the Polish partners received the wink from the new lot and started selling their stakes...此外,在经济类文本中还使用了许多有灵动词(animate verbs),如grow,recover,need,pick up,continue,slow,move,suffer,think,reckon...,以及无生命的动词(inanimate verbs),如boom,collapse,expand,overheat,open,fall,rise,remain,become,crash,close,slump,increase...,它们均具有隐喻意义。
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