家族伦理道德的范式化

五、家族伦理道德的范式化

“中国家族伦理道德制度，发达早。”(冯尔康，1996：5)且非常完备。(胡文彬，2005：585)“经过历代统治阶级及其士人的改造，宗法制度下的血亲有意识地转化为法律条文(如不孝成为犯法的首恶)，更主要的是形成宗法式的伦理道德，长久地左右着社会心理和行为规范。”(冯天瑜，1990：232)所谓“宗法”就是中国古代社会规定嫡、庶系统的法则。(顾伟列，2006：59)所谓，“血亲”意识，就是“六亲”——父子、兄弟、夫妇;“九族”——父族四、母族三、妻族二。这种“血亲”意识是与家族制度相伴随而产生的，它构成社会意识的轴心。同时，“孝亲”也是家族伦理道德的“核心”。古人特别强调“百善孝为先”、“不孝有三，无后为大”，使“孝”成为中国家族中心主义的灵魂与基本命题。如《红楼梦》中贾政身为荣府一家之主，而且还有官爵在身，但在母亲面前却必须毕恭毕敬，不敢有丝毫的怠慢;对于母亲干涉自己管教儿子宝玉，他惟有“躬身陪笑”、“跪下含泪”、“叩头哭道”、“苦苦叩求认罪”等，却不敢言语顶撞。

◆ 贾政见他母亲来了，又急又痛，连忙迎接出来，只见贾母扶着丫头，喘吁吁的走来，贾政上前躬身陪笑道：“大暑热天，母亲有何生气亲自走来?有话只该叫了儿子进去吩咐。”贾母听说，便止住步喘息一回，厉声说道：“你原来是和我说话!我倒有话吩咐，只是可怜我一生没养个好儿子。却教我和谁说去!”贾政听这话不象，忙跪下含泪说道：“为儿的教训儿子，也为的是光宗耀祖。母亲这话，我做儿的如何禁得起?”

……

贾政听说，忙叩头哭道：“母亲如此说，贾政无立足之地。”贾母冷笑道：“你分明使我无立足之地，你反说起你来!只是我们回去了，你心里干净，看有谁来许你打。”一面说，一面只令快打点行李车轿回去。贾政苦苦叩求认罪。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第三十三回)

Jia Zheng rose in dismay and distress to greet his mother，who entered on a maid's arm，gasping for breath．At once he stepped forward to bow respectfully．

“Why should you vex yourself，mother，and come over on such a hot day? If you have any instructions，just send for your son．”

The Lady Dowager halted to catch her breath．

“Were you addressing me?”She demanded sternly．“Yes，I have some instructions．The pity is I've borne no filial son to whom I can speak．”

Appalled by his rebuke，Jia Zheng fell on his knees，tears in his eyes．“If your son disciplines his son，it is for the honor of our ancestors，”he pleaded．“How can I bear your reproaches?”

……

When Jia Zheng heard this he knocked his head on the floor．

“What place is there for me on earth，mother，”he wailed，“if you reproach me like this?”

The Lady Dowager smiled sarcastically．

“You're making it clear that there's no place for me，and yet you start complaining．We are simply going away to save you trouble and leave you free to beat anyone you please．”

She ordered attendants to pack up at once and make ready for the journey，while Jia Zheng kowtowed and earnestly begged her forgiveness．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

“孝”不仅要求人们对活着的长辈顺从、毕恭毕敬，而且还要对死去的列祖列宗尽孝道。如下面的例句中就是贾珍对死去的父亲——贾敬的隆重追悼，体现了“孝亲”在贾家这个大家族中的伦理道德本位。

◆ 贾珍父子星夜驰回……贾珍忙说了几声“妥当”，加鞭便走，店也不投，连夜换马飞驰。

一日到了都门，先奔入铁槛寺。那天已是四更天气，坐更的闻知，忙喝起众人来。贾珍下了马，和贾蓉放声大哭，从大门外便跪爬进来，至棺前稽颡泣血，直哭到天亮喉咙都哑了方住。尤氏等都一齐见过。贾珍父子忙按礼换了凶服，在棺前俯伏，无奈自要理事，竟不能目不视物，耳不闻声，少不得减些悲戚，指挥众人。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第六十三回)

Jia Zhen and his son were speeding home post-haste．．．

“Well done，well done!”

They galloped on then，not stopping at any inns but changing horses at different post-houses as they sped back through the night．And upon reaching the capital they went straight to Iron Threshold Temple．It was then the fourth watch and the watch-men，hearing them，aroused everyone in the place．Jia Zhen alighted and with Jia Rong wailed aloud，both advancing on their knees from outside the gate to where the coffin was resting，kowtowing and lamenting all the way．They went on wailing till dawn，at which time their voices were hoarse．

Madam You and the others all came to meet them．Then Jia Zhen and his son，having changed into mourning according to the rites，prostrated themselves before the coffin．However，since they had to business to attend to which they could not ignore，they had to curtail their mourning in order to issue instructions．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

(1)“三从四德”

家族伦理道德对妇女有着特殊要求，即“三从四德”。所谓“三从”，就是“未嫁从父，即嫁从夫，夫死从子”;所谓“四德”，就是“妇德、妇言、妇容、妇功”。假使妇女不能生育，会被视为“不孝”，即成为丈夫休妻的理由，会被丈夫赶出家门。妇女在整个家族中的地位低下、权利有限，她们必须遵守的是“女子无才便是德”的“闺范”。妇女们在家庭中的地位是不平等的。她们的德就是她们必须无才，女性不能读书，只能做些女红而已。如：

◆ 至李守中乘继以来，便说“女子无才便有德”，故生了李氏时，便不十分令其读书，只不过将些《女四书》、《烈女传》、《贤媛集》等三四种书，使他认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便罢了，却只以纺绩井臼为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。因此这李纨虽青春丧偶，居家处膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概无见无闻，惟知侍亲养子，外则陪侍小姑等针黹诵读而已。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第四回)

When he became head of the family，however，in the belief that“an unaccomplished woman is a virtuous woman，”instead of making his daughter study hard，he simply had her taught enough to read a few books such as Four Books for Girls，Biographies of Martyred Women，and Lives of Exemplary Ladies so that she might remember the deeds of worthy women of earlier dynasties while devoting her main attention to weaving and household tasks．That was why he gave her the name Li Wan and the courtesy name Gongcai(Palace Seamstress)．

So this young widow living in the lap of luxury was so better off than withered wood or cold ashes，taking no interest in the outside world．Apart from waiting on her elders and looking after her son，all she did was to accompany the girls at their embroidery or reading．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

(2)取名范式

家族伦理道德还表现在族人的取名范式和称谓范式上。所谓取名“范式”就是指某一家族某一代人都是按照一定的排行范式取名。如在我国，孔姓是个世代大家族，自孔子成为圣人后，其子子孙孙的名字都以一定的范式来取。不仅居住在山东曲阜的孔氏后代如此，散居在全国各地的孔氏子孙也必须遵从这个范式来取名。这种取名范式构筑了家族血缘关系的亲疏和系别，千载不乱，万代相继。

《红楼梦》中的荣宁二府同所有的大家族一样，宁荣二府内的贾家族人的取名排行也都是按照一定的范式进行。如宁荣二公单名，名字带水字(三点水)旁，长为演，次为源。第二代人名字双字，中间为“代”字;第三代人的名字是单字，文字辈，有贾敬、贾赦、贾政，同辈有女子贾敏，他们的名字都带有“文”字;第四代人是玉字辈，单名，他们的名字带王字旁，如贾珍、贾珠、贾琏、贾环、贾璜、贾琮，贾瑛(贾宝玉)等;第五代人是草字辈单名，他们的名字都带草字头，如贾蓉、贾蔷、贾芹、贾芸等。第四代人有四位是女性，他们的名字都带一个“春”字，另行排行。中国人的这种取名范式是家族共同成员所共有的东西，它不仅遵循一定的规律，也有一定的含义。取名排行含义不是一种纯概念的表述，而是渗透着家族的一种共同的理想、对未来的期望，带着父母的感受或者长辈的希望，或暗含着诞生的时间。如：

◆ 子兴道：“不然。只因现今大小姐是正月初一日所生，故名元春，余者方从了‘春’字，上一辈的，却也是从弟兄而来的。现有对证：目今你贵东家林公之夫人，即荣府中赦、政二公之胞妹，在家时名唤贾敏。不信时，你回去细访可知。”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第二回)

“You don't understand，”said Zixing．“They named the eldest girl Yuanchun because she was born on New Year's Day，and so the others have‘chun’in their names too．But all the girls of the last generation had names like those of boys．For proof，look at the wife of your respected employer Mr．Lin，the sister of Jia She and Jia Zheng in the Rong Mansion．Her name，before she married，was Jia Min．If you don't believe me，check up when you go back．”(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

＊Yuanchun：Cardinal Spring．

＊Min has the same radical as She and Zheng．

(3)讲辈分，长幼、尊卑有序

在一个家族中，在同一辈的人中，嫡出的长子或兄长要比庶出的弟弟的地位高，男子比女子的地位高，丈夫比妻子的地位高，嫂子比弟媳的地位高。不同辈分的人，长辈比晚辈的地位高。如：

◆ 宝玉笑道：“你倒比先越发出息了，倒像我的儿子。”贾琏笑道：“好不害臊!人家比你大四五岁呢，就替你作儿子了?”宝玉笑道：“你今年十几岁了?”贾芸道：“十八岁。”

原来这贾芸最伶俐乖觉，听宝玉这样说，便笑道：“俗语说的，‘摇车里的爷爷，拄拐的孙子’。虽然岁数大，山高高不过太阳。”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第二十四回)

“You've grown very handsome since I saw you last．”Baoyu grinned．“You could almost be my son．”

“For shame!”Jia Lian chortled．“Your son?He's four or five years older than you．”

Baoyu smiled．

“What age are you?”

“Eighteen．”

Jia Yun had all his wits about him．He seized this chance to add：“As the proverb says，‘A grandfather in the cradle may have a grandson who leans on a stick．’I may be older than you but‘The highest mountain can't shut out the sun．’”(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

(4)亲属称谓

汉语亲属称谓系统的构成具有多分性、多层次性的特点，它体现在男女有别、长幼有序、系脉分明、宗族有别。(卢红梅，2006：31)

如汉语称谓中的“祖父”、“外祖父”“舅舅”、“舅妈”、“姑夫”、“姑姑”、“堂哥”、“表妹”等不仅能体现出性别关系，还能体现出父系、母系、年龄长幼、姻亲、已婚还是未婚、宗族等关系。如下面例句中的“舅舅”为男性且为母系的亲戚，“舅母”为女性，且为姻亲关系，“内侄女”不仅表示了性别关系，还显示出“内侄女”王熙凤与“二舅母”宗族关系;“嫂”的称呼则体现出性别、姻亲、已婚以及与称呼人的长幼顺序关系。

如果把汉语亲属称谓分类的话，可以分为父系和母系两大系统。父系系列包括有高祖父母、曾祖父母、祖父母、父母、儿子、孙子(女)、重孙子(女)、曾孙子(女)、玄孙(女)上下“九族”;母系系列包括外祖父母、舅父母、姑表兄弟姐妹、姨父母、姨表兄弟姊妹等。即使是在现代中国，可以作为亲属核心称谓词语仍然多达20多个，他们是祖、父、子、孙、母、女、兄、弟、姊、妹、伯、叔、侄、甥、姑、舅、姨、岳、婿、夫、妻、嫂等。如：

◆ 凤姐儿想一想，笑道：“一家子也是过正月节，合家赏灯吃酒，真真的热闹非凡。祖婆婆、太婆婆、媳妇、孙子媳妇、重孙媳妇、亲孙子媳妇、侄孙子、重孙子、灰孙子、滴滴搭搭的孙子、孙女儿、外孙女儿、姨表孙女儿、姑表孙女儿……嗳哟哟!真好热闹!……”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第五十四回)

Xifeng drained her cup and thought for a second．“In the middle of the first month，”she began，“during the Lantern Festival a family was having a fine lively time，enjoying lanterns and drinking together．There were the great-grandmother，grandmother，grand-mothers-in-law，daughters-in-law，grand-nephews and a pack of great-great-grandsons，as well as granddaughters and grand-nieces on the paternal and maternal sides，and grandnieces on the brothers'and sisters'sides．．．Aiya，it was really lively……”(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

◆ 天下真有这样标致的人物，我今儿才算见了!况且这通身的气派，竟不像老祖宗的外孙女儿，竟是个嫡亲的孙女，怨不得老祖宗天天口头心头一时不忘。只可怜我这妹妹这样命苦，怎么姑妈偏就去世了!(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第三回)

This is the first time I've set eyes on such a ravishing beauty．Her whole air is so distinguished!She doesn't take after her father，son-in-law of our Old Ancestress，but looks more like a Jia．No wonder our Old Ancestress couldn't put you out her mind and was forever talking or thinking about you．But poor illfated little cousin，losing your mother so young!(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

◆ 她从贫苦的姑家，又转到更贫苦的姨家。(萧红《王阿嫂的死》)

She had lived for a while with some impoverished paternal relatives，then had been bundled off to some maternal relatives who were，if anything，even worse．(Howard Blatt译)

【注】汉语中“姑”指的是“我”父亲的姐妹，“姨”则是“我”母亲的姐妹。“姑妈”和“姨妈”在英语中都用aunt来表示，体现不出宗族概念，因而翻译成“paternal relatives”和“maternal relatives”，有利于英语读者了解中国文化，了解中国人的家族亲属间有严格的称谓区别。在这种家族亲属称谓中，父系重近，维系的久远;母系轻远，维系的时间相对较短。中国有句俗话，“姑表亲，辈辈亲，断了骨头连着筋”，而“姨娘亲，不算亲，死了姨娘断了亲”，反映了一种普遍的社会心理，折射出亲属称谓的血缘因素的远近所造成的亲疏。如：

◆ 宝玉听了，忙上来悄悄的说道：“你这么个明白人，难道连‘亲不间疏，先不僭后’也不知道?我虽糊涂，却明白这两句话。头一件，咱们是姑舅姊妹，宝姐姐是两姨姊妹，论亲戚，他比你疏。第二件，你先来，咱们两个一桌吃，一床睡，长的这么大了，他是才来的，岂有个为他疏你的?”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第二十回)

Baoyu stepped to her side and said softly，“Someone of your intelligenceshould know that distant relatives can't come between close ones，and new friends can't take the place of old．Dense as I am，I know that．Look，you're the daughter of my father's sister，while Baochai's a cousin on my mother's side—you're more closely related to me than she is．Besides，you came here first，we've eating at the same table，slept in the same bed and grown up together，while she has only recently arrived．How could I be less close to you because of her?”(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

【注】“亲不间疏，先不僭后”的意思是“关系疏远的人，不能离间关系亲密的人;结识在后的人，不能超过结识在先的人”。(张俊等，1987：340)

(5)浓烈的孝亲

“孝亲”也是家族伦理道德的“核心”。古人特别强调“百善孝为先”、“不孝有三，无后为大”，使“孝”成为中国家族中心主义的灵魂与基本命题。孝道观念是宗法社会的核心内容(顾伟列，2006：64)，它要求每个人尽管所处的位置各有不同，当须遵守已经规定好的为人之道，即父慈、子孝、兄良、弟悌、夫义、妇听、长惠、幼顺、君仁、臣忠等“十义”。如：

◆ (宝玉)说着扳鞍上马，众小厮围随往贾赦这边来。见了贾赦，不过是偶感风寒，先述了贾母问的话，然后自己请了安。贾赦先站起来回了贾母话，次后便唤人来：“带哥儿进去太太屋里坐着。”宝玉退出，来至后面，进入上房。邢夫人见了他来，先倒站了起来，请过贾母安，宝玉方请安。邢夫人拉他上炕坐了，方问别人好，又命人倒茶来。一钟茶未吃完，只见那贾琮来问宝玉好。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第二十四回)

He(Baoyu)swung himself into the saddle then and his pages escorted him to Jia She's house，where he found that his uncle had nothing worse than a cold．Having delivered his grandmother's message he paid his own respects．Jia She stood up to reply to the Lady Dowager's inquiries after his hearth，then ordered a servant to take Baoyu to his wife．

Baoyu went to the back，to Lady Xing's apartment，and when she had risen to convey her respects to his grandmother he bowed on his won account．She made him sit beside her on the kang and asked after the rest ofthe family．While they sipped the tea she had ordered，Jia Cong came in to greet Baoyu．(杨宪益、戴乃迭)

【注】贾宝玉像个使者代表着贾母来到大伯贾赦家，向贾赦问好，因此，贾赥见宝玉有如见着贾母。这就像过去皇帝赐给某人某物，众人见了皇帝的信物，都得下跪一样。所以，贾赦尽管身为宝玉的伯父，却必须先站起来回了贾母话。这也是为什么邢夫人见了宝玉后，倒先站了起来，请贾母安，宝玉方请安的原因，体现出浓浓的孝亲情感。汉语所体现的这种家族尊敬长者的文化习俗，在汉英翻译时也可以通过英译文阐释出来。

子女对父母的孝亲情感还表现在：子女不仅尊重父母，甚至连父母的名字也不直接读写或读念，每每遇此，则用其他的字代写或代念。如：

◆ 雨村拍案笑道：“怪道这女学生读至凡书中有‘敏’字，皆念作‘密’字，每每如是;写字遇着‘敏’字，又减一二笔，我心中就有些疑惑。今听你说的，是为此无疑矣。”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第二回)

Yucun pounded the table with a laugh．“No wonder my pupil always pronounces‘min’as‘mi’and writes it with one or two strokes missing．That puzzled me，but now you've explained the reason．”

＊one or two strokes missing：a parent's name was taboo and had to be used in an altered form．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

【注】林黛玉读书时，凡书中有“敏”字，皆念作“密”字，或写字遇着“敏”字，又减一两笔，这是中国古代避讳的表现。中国避讳的范围大致有两个方面，一是公讳，也就是遇到帝王和孔子的名字，必须避讳;二是私讳，也叫家讳，也就是遇到祖父、父亲或母亲的名字，必须避讳。该例句中的避讳则属私讳。避讳的主要方法有：(1)改字法——用同义、近义或近音字来代替回避的字，这叫“恭代”。如秦始皇的名字叫嬴政，讳“正”字，凡是遇到“正”字，改用“端”字。(2)缺笔法——将应避讳的字少写某些笔画，一般总是少写最后一个笔画，称为“敬末”。(3)空字法——刻书时，遇到应避讳的字不刻出来，空出相同的位置，或作“某”或作。如三国时期蜀主刘备字玄德，清刻本常作德，为避康熙的讳。(4)分析法——即将应避讳的字，分成几个部分来叙述。如为避清圣祖玄烨的讳，就将玄写成“从一从么”。(5)墨圈法——即对应避讳的字，四周加黑框。(6)说明法——即对必须避讳的字，加以某种说明，而避免直接写出来。

(6)族长、祠堂与义学、家塾

中国古代的宗族构成除了同祖共宗的血缘关系、地缘因素之外，还必须选出组织者——族长以管理宗族的大小事务及族人的活动场所——祠堂。与此同时还需设置经费来源的义田和教育族中子弟的家塾。(胡文彬，2005：597)

◆ 虽然贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到这些;二则现任族长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，自有他掌管。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第四回)

Although Jia Zheng was known for his fine method of schooling his sons and disciplining his household，the family was too large for him to see to everything．Moreover the head of the clan was Jia Zhen，who as the eldest grandson of the Duke of Ningguo had inherited the title and was responsible for all clan affairs．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

【注】“族长”是宗法制度下家族或宗族的头人，通常由族中辈分较高、年纪较大的有权有势的人担任。(汉语双语《现代汉语词典》，2002： 2564)贾珍乃是贾家家族中长房长孙，又现袭职，掌管族中事务。假设族中子弟“今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼”，贾珍不管，别人也会像贾珍那样以“公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗务为要”等种种借口而不闻不问的。

祠堂，也称“宗祠”，是供奉祖先神主让族人祭祀的地方，也是族人团体活动或族长施政的场所。(胡文彬，2005：597)如：

◆ 诸子弟有未入朝者，皆在宁府门前排班伺候，然后引入宗祠。且说宝琴是初次，一面细细留神打谅这宗祠，原来宁府西边另一个院子，黑油栅栏内五间大门，上悬一块匾，写着是“贾氏宗祠”四个字，旁书“衍圣公孔继宗书”。两旁有一副长联，写道是：“肝脑涂地，兆姓赖保育之恩;功名贯天，百代仰蒸尝之盛。”亦衍圣公所书。

进入院中，白石甬路，两边皆是苍松翠柏。月台上设着青绿古铜鼎彝等器。抱厦前上面悬一九龙金匾，写道是：“星辉辅弼”。乃先皇御笔。两边一副对联，写道是：“勋业有光昭日月，功名无间及子孙。”亦是御笔。五间正殿前悬一闹龙填青匾，写道是：“慎终追远”。旁边一副对联，写道是：“已后儿孙承福德，至今黎庶念荣宁。”俱是御笔。

里边香烛辉煌，锦幛绣幕，虽列着神主，却看不真切。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第五十三回)

On their return，they alighted from their chairs by the lobby of the Ning Mansion．All their younger kinsmen who had not gone to court had lined up to wait in front of the main gate，and now ushered them into the Ancestral Temple．

Now as this was Xue Baoqin's first visit here，she took pains to observe the whole place carefully．The temple，a five-frame structure enclosed by a black palisade，stood in a separate courtyard to the west of the Ning Mansion．In large characters on the placard over the gate was the imposing fourcharacter inscription“Jia Family Ancestral Temple．”In small characters beside this she read“Written by Kong Jizong，Hereditary Duke Descended from Confucius．”The couplet flanking this read：

The grateful recipients of Imperial Favor will gladly dash their brains out on the ground;

Generations to come will make solemn sacrifice for deeds whose fame resounds to Heaven．

This too had been written by the duke descended from Confucius．

Entering this courtyard，the party proceeded along a way paved with white marble and bordered by green pines and cypresses to a terrace on which were displayed ancient bronze tripods and libation cups green with patina．Before the porch hung a placard gilded with the nine-dragon design，and the inscription“Stars Shine on the Assistant，”which had been written by the late Emperor himself．The couplet on either side，also in the Imperial calligraphy，read：

Their achievements outshine the sun and moon，

Their fame will extend to their posterity．

The tablet over the entrance to the main hall was engraved with frolicking dragons，and bore the intagliated motto in blue：“Venerate the Departed，Continue Their Sacrifice．”The couplet flanking this，also written by the Emperor，read：

Their descendants succeed to their good fortune and virtue;

Ning and Rong live in the memory of the black-haired people．

The hall itself，ablaze with candles and lamps，was so brilliant with silk hangings and embroidered curtains that the ancestral tablets，ranged in their places，were hard to make out distinctly．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

【注】在本例句中，作者首先写出了贾家祖有功，宗有德的历史，所以要宗族共祭。体现了“人本乎祖”的观念。作者是借用宝琴的眼睛进行观察，将贾家祠堂向我们描述了一遍，由此我们得知贾家的祠堂不仅规模大，而且祠堂里悬挂的匾额、对联，都有其历史，辉煌且肃穆。

那么什么又是“义学”呢?所谓“义学”，也叫“义塾”，是由宗族、地方的公益收入或捐赠兴办的一种免费学校，供族人、亲友子弟入学读书。(胡文彬，2005：599)这种义学曹雪芹在《红楼梦》第九回中也写出了贾家义学的来历。请看：

◆ 原来这贾家之义学，离此地不远，不过一里之遥，原系始祖所立，恐族中子弟有贫穷不能请师者，即入此中学。凡族中有官爵之人，皆供给银两，按俸之多寡帮助，为学中之费。特共举年高有德之人为塾师，专为训课子弟。(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第九回)

Now this Jia family school，which was only a li away，had been set up several generations earlier so that members of the clan who could not afford to engage a tutor would have somewhere to educate their sons．It was supported by those with official positions，who contributed according to the size of their stipends，and an elderly man of good reputation in the clan was elected to take charge of the boys'instruction．(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)

过去大家族所办的义学，不仅族中贫穷子弟可以入学接受塾师的训课，就是族中子弟的亲戚也可以附读。如：

◆ 宝玉不待说完，便答道：“正是呢，我们却有个家塾。我因业师又回家去了，也现荒废着呢。……今日回去，何不禀明，就往我们敝塾中来，我亦相伴，岂不是好事?”秦钟笑道：“家父前日在家提起延师一事，也曾提起这里的义学倒好，原要来和这里的亲翁商议引荐。因这里事忙，不便为这点小事来甛絮的。”(曹雪芹《红楼梦》第七回)

“Just what I think，”broke in Baoyu．“We have a school for members ofour clan who can't engage a tutor，and some other relatives attend it too．My tutor went home last year，so I'm a loose end myself for the time being．．．．If，as you say，your worthy father is concerned over this，why not tell him about it when you go home today，and come and study in our school?I'll be your schoolfellow，and we can help each other．What could be better?”

“The other day when my father brought up the question of a tutor he spoke highly of this free school here，”replied Qin Zhong eagerly．“He meant to come and talk it over with Lord Zhen，but didn't like to trouble him about such a trifle when everyone here is so busy．”(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)