作文分类讲解

五、作文分类讲解

举例法就是通过使用具体的事例使抽象的概念具体化。概括性的陈述往往难以给人留下深刻的印象，说服力不强，因此在写作过程中有必要使用事例对概括性语言进行解释说明。

(1)写作模板

The Qualifications of a Good Teacher

I have been a student for years，and of course I've met a variety of teachers.But the definition I give for a good teacher is someone who is knowledgeable and understanding.He or she should take care of our studies as well as our growth.

A knowledgeable teacher must be good at his own course and know widely about other correspondent subjects.He can connect these knowledge together and make his class interesting and lively.Take one of my former teachers for example.Each time we do not concentrate ourselves on his lecture，he will tell jokes or a story about what he is teaching.The jokes or stories are usually perfectly suitable for that condition，sometimes the words he gave were so convincing that it makes us believe that it's quite worthy to have his class.

The teacher should also understand us，just as my English teacher.We can learn much from her class，not only English，but also the knowledge about how to be a person in future.I would like to illustrate this byone of her class.She read some news for us that day.A freshman promised a rich forty-year-old lady to marry him，if only she can pay the tuitions for him.We discussed the behavior of that gentleman—whether he is right or wrong.I remember each of us expressed our own thoughts which reflected our inner-self clearly.I was so surprised to find that although we were of the same age，our mind was that different.The discussion greatly broadened my views of life.

(2)主题句

英语作文的主题句一般直接放于段首。例解性段落的主题句一般应满足两个目的：第一，告诉读者你将要解释说明的对象；第二，给读者留下清晰的思路，你将从哪几个方面对所要说明的对象展开叙述。请看下面段落：

EG1.My apartment has given me nothing but headaches.From the day I signed the lease，I have had to deal with an uncooperative landlord，an incompetent janitor，and inconsiderable neighbors.

该主题句首先指出该段阐述对象为“令我头疼的公寓”，并且为接下来段落内容的扩展提供了清晰的线索，即段落将从an uncooperative landlord，an incompetent janitor，and inconsiderable neighbors三个方面展开叙述。又如：

EG2.To acquire a job that is intellectually rewarding，creative，and contributive has been my ambition for many years.For I believe this kind of job is worthiest of devotion.

EG3.Using one's spare time to pursue a hobby can bring various rewards.A hobby can provide us with both interest and entertainment.

(3)事例的选择

为把问题说清楚，往往要从事物的各个方面多选取一些事例。因此，选例首先要充分，具有代表性。

EG4.The working conditions were poor.The tables where the workers sat were very high and uncomfortable.Except for a half hour at lunchtime，there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work.There was no music.The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color.I was amazed that the workers hadn't gone on strike.(为了说明工作条件差，作者分别列举了tables，work time，music，walls四个例子加以说明)

但这并不是说，事例引用越多越好，有时仅采用一个具体生动的例子也能以点带面，达到抽象概念具体化的效果。

EG5.Furthermore，the work flow was irregular.There was one especially absentminded young man in the assembly line who sewed on buttons.After a while I recognized him as“Big Jim，”who used to sit behind me in math class in high school.He was very slow and all the shirts were held up at his position.Workers beyond him in line on his shift had to wait with nothing to do；therefore，a great deal of time and efficiency were lost as Big Jim daydreamed while he worked.All week I wondered why he wasn't fired.(仅“Big Jim”一例就把工作流程不正常问题揭露得一清二楚。具体的人物、事件使举例更真实可信，形象生动。)

(4)事例的安排

如果一个段落中含有多个事例，这些事例可以一个接一个并列出现在段落中，也可以适当应用连接词按一定逻辑顺序依次排列。

EG6.Einstein was purely and exclusively a theorist.He didn't have the slightest interest in the practical application of his ideas and theories.His E=mc²is probably the most famous equation in history—yet Einstein wouldn't walk down the street to see a reactor create atomic energy.He won the Nobel Prize for his photoelectric theory，a series of equations that he considered relatively minor in importance，but he didn't have any curiosity in observing how his theory made TV possible.(两个事例自然摆放在段中。)

EG7.In order to prevent non-smokers form being affected，measures must be taken to reduce the chances of smoking.A lot of work can be done concerning this.For example，in some public places，such as in theatres，cinemas，smoking should be forbidden.Even on the train or plane，people should not be allowed to smoke.Doctors，teachers，government leaders should take the lead not to smoke.Above all，the harmfulness and dangers caused by smoking should be made known to all through newspapers，broadcast or TV programmes.Also，the growing of tobacco and the production of cigarettes should not be encouraged.Only in this way can we effectively reduce the chances of smoking.(众多事例按其强调程度依次排列，中间有连接词进行过渡。)

(5)例证性段落的语言

A.词语和句型

namely即，就是

specifically/especially/particularly尤其是，特别是

chiefly/mainly主要是

to illustrate举例说

such as...像，比如

for example/for instance例如

to take...as an example以……为例

one example is...Another example is...一个例子是……另一个例子是……

...can be illustrated/shown by the following examples/instances……可以由以下事例说明

The...shows/illustrates...……显示了，说明了……

The following example will show that...下面的例子显示了……

There are many examples to show that...有许多例子可以说明……

B.参考例句

①Computer programming offers many interesting job opportunities.For example...，especially....

计算机编程提供了许多令人感兴趣的就业机会。例如……，尤其是……。

②There are many examples to show that our city is one of the most beautiful and progressive cities in China.

有许多实例证明，我们的城市是全中国最漂亮、最先进的城市之一。

③Especially，Dalian offers many attractions for the summer tourists.

尤其是，大连有许多夏季旅游景点。

④Garbage is now being turned into various art forms，such as....

废弃物正被制成各种各样的艺术造型，例如……

⑤You should，for example，pay close attention to your manner of speaking.

比如，你应该注意你的讲话方式。

⑥A well-known example is the excellent management in education by employing advanced scientific methods.

一个显著的例子是采用先进的科学方法对教育实行卓有成效的管理。

⑦The following examples will show that campus activities help to contribute to the students' studies.

以下举例将说明校园活动会促进学生的学业发展。

...is often(frequently，generally)cited(quoted，mentioned)as a(single，common，familiar，prime)example of...

Mozart is often quoted as a familiar example of ardent interest and sustained endeavor.

莫扎特，作为强烈的兴趣和坚持不懈的努力的典范，经常受到引用。

China's growth，which has been spectacular over the past few years，depends on a stable currency and responsible lending policies.Yet neither has been in evidence in recent months.A common example which is frequently cited is soaring inflation which has approached nearly 30%in major cities and bankers who have lavished funds on fly-bynight ventures and speculative schemes such as real estate projects and stock issues.

在过去几年里取得惊人增长的中国经济主要取决于稳定的货币制度和可靠的信贷政策。但是最近几个月来，人们看不到这一点。最常见的例证就是通货膨胀，在许多大城市里已达到近30%。另外，银行向根本无还债能力的企业以及投机项目如房地产开发和发行股票债券等打开绿灯，发放贷款。

A good(better，classic)case in point(example of this)is best provided by...

Although the central government is trying desperately to keep economic growth below 15%，things are not so easy in China，where to nod politely is one thing，and to follow what you say is quite another.A classic example of this can be provided by the attitude of provincial and municipal officials toward the government's policy.They insist that they have the right to interpret it their own way and that overhearing is not a problem.

虽然中央政府极力想把经济增长速度控制在15%以下，但事情并不那么简单。在中国，对你客气地点头同意是一回事，是否按你说的去做则是另一回事。最典型的例子就是省市领导干部对中央政府的态度。他们有权按自己的意思来理解中央的政策，认为经济过热不是问题。

A good example of this changed attitude can be best provided by the case of a college student who stressed openly that money is not the prime objective of today's students.

说明年轻人态度变化的一个很好的例子是一名大学生公开声明钱并不是今天的学生所追求的首要目标。

An example of other ways in which satellites can benefit mankind was provided in 1970 by an international congress on postgraduate medical instruction.

人造卫星造福于人类的其他方面的另一个例子是1970年有关毕业后医学教学的国际大会。

To the familiar facts(examples)，another(a few more，numerous，a number of other)facts(examples)may be added.

To the already familiar example of the law of balance，some other examples may be added：beyond a certain point of more and better food appears to mean increased need for medical services.More vacations require more amusements，more hotels，and heavier traffic，and so force.

除了这个我们都熟悉的平衡规律的例子，我们还可以举出其他一些例子：食品吃得太多太好超过一定程度似乎会增加对医疗卫生的需要；假期太多会要求更多的娱乐场所、旅馆，也会使交通更拥挤。

As a(an)example of(illustration of，case in point)，we may take(see)...

Mao Zedong remains in important ways the center of the county's moral universe.As a case in point，we may see a fresh nationwide enthusiasm for Mao as China marked the centenary of his birth last week.

毛泽东在许多重要的方面仍然是这个国家的道德中心。作为一个例证，我们可以看一下上星期当中国庆祝他诞生一百周年时全国出现的一股毛泽东热。

As an illustration of the benefits to host the 2000 Summer Olympics，we may see more than a billion dollars the victor is sure to land in television and advertising revenue.

为了说明举办2000年夏季奥运会的好处，我们可以看一下电视转播和广告带来的十几亿收入。

History(This nation，Our society)is filled(abounds)with the examples of...

History abounds with the examples of great men who make the normally wasted hours useful and productive.Thomas A.Edison worked out many inventions between messages when he was working as a telegraph-operator.Harriet Beecher Stowe，a mother of six children，wrote parts of Uncle Tom's Cabin on sheets of butchers'paper while she was cooking the roast.Benjamin Franklin in his story of his life shows an endless number of such efforts.

历史上有许多这方面的例子。伟人们都把看上去可浪费的时间充分利用起来，使之产生效率。爱迪生在做电报报务员的时候，利用发报间隙搞出了许多发明。斯托夫人这个有六个孩子的母亲在烤肉的时候，用包生肉的纸写下了《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中的一些章节。富兰克林在他一生中也有许多这样的例子。

(6)练习

1)Students are asked to read the following models and then give comments on the author's selection of examples.

Model 1

The working conditions were poor.The tables where the workers sat were very high and uncomfortable.Except for a half hour at lunchtime，there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work.There was no music.The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color.I was amazed that the workers hadn't gone on strike.

(The first sentence is the topic sentence of this paragraph.Four examples are used to illustrate the topic sentence.)

Model 2

Furthermore，the work flow was irregular.There was one especially absent-minded young man in the assembly line who sewed on buttons.After a while I recongnized him as“Big Jim，”who used to sit behind me in math class in high school.He was very slow and all the shirts were held up at his position.Workers beyond him in line on his shift had to wait with nothing to do；therefore，a great deal of time and efficiency were lost as Big jim daydreamed while he worked.All week I wondered why he wasn't fired.

(Only one specific example used in this paragraph to illustrate the first sentence—the topic sentence.)

Model 3

Einstein was purely and exclusively a theorist.He didn't have the slightest interest in the practical application of his ideas and theories.His E=mc²is probably the most famous equation in history—yet Einstein wouldn't walk down the street to see a reactor create atomic energy.He won the Nobel Prize for his photoelectric theory，a series of equations that he considered relatively minor in importance，but he didn't have any curiosity in observing how his theory made TV possible.

(Two specific and typical examples are used to illustrate that Einstein was purely and exclusively a theorist.)

Model 4

In order to prevent non-smokers form being affected，measures must be taken to reduce the chances of smoking.A lot of work can be done concerning this.For example，in some public places，such as in theatres，cinemas，smoking，should be forbidden.Even on the train or plane，people should not be allowed to smoke.Doctors，teachers，government leaders should take the lead not to smoke.Above all，the harmfulness and dangers caused by smoking should be made known to all through newspapers，broadcast or TV programs.Also，the growing of tobacco and the production of cigarettes should not be encouraged.Only in this way can we effectively reduce the chances of smoking.

(In this paragraph the author develops the controlling sentence with some specific and relevant examples.)

2)Write an essay on one of the following topics：

a)Changes in My Home Town in the Last...Years or since...

b)The Job I Would Like to Have

c)The Qualifications of a Good Student

d)Hobbies

e)The Feudalistic Thinking of Some Young People Today

f)We Can Profit from Good Books

g)Films Not Worth Seeing

h)We Need More People like...

i)Behavior That should Be Praised/Condemned

j)Parents/Teachers/Friends...Have Great Influence on Us

当要说明的事物比较复杂或包括的内容比较多时，常常将其分成更小的类别。这就是分类法。分类说明文以分类为主要表达方式，按照种属关系，将被说明的对象分门别类地加于介绍或区分，对其范围、性质、内容等进行分类介绍或分项说明，使分类说明的内容趋于科学，并且明确而细致。其目的是使被说明的事物的特征明确、条理清晰，便于读者了解和掌握。

(1)写作模版

College Teachers

There are different types of college teachers.I have divided them into threecategories according totheir ways of teaching.

I call the first groupleaders.They are perhaps the most welcome teachers.They lead their students along the way of knowledge.In class，they only analyze the most difficult and important part of the textbook and leave the details to the students to learn by themselves.They give the students free time to discuss problems instead of showing them everything.They don't give an excessive amount of homework but enough for students to grasp what they have learned.

The second groupare followers.I call these teachers followers because they don't seem to have brains of their own and they follow exactly what the textbook says.During class，they just transfer everything from books to the blackboard，no more，no less.You can easily find this type of teacher because there are always several sleepers in their class.They give a lot of assignments.Students usually don't like them and think they are very oppressive.

The teachers who fall into the third category arefree talkers.They don't like to teach according to the textbook.They are usually very knowledgeable and are fond of showing their new ideas to their students.They talk about the things that they want to say but not what the textbook wants them to say.They know how to attract students，broaden their mind and make them think more profoundly.Since exams still exist，this way of teaching might not be widely accepted because students will not get high marks.I think if possible，every student prefers this way of teaching because he/she can obtain knowledge in a pleasant way.

Perhaps there is still another category，

but I think most college teachers can beclassified into these three types.

(2)主题句

分类型段落文章的主题句应明确指出分类所参照的标准。比如说英文中的people可以根据亲疏程度分成strangers，acquaintances，friends，relatives；也可以根据其政治倾向分为radical，liberal，conservative and indifferent；或者根据其社会阶层分成lower class，middle class，and upper class，但是我们绝对不能同时把people分成strangers，acquaintances，conservative，upper class。可见分类标准混用会造成读者理解的困惑。因此，分类标准除了要求明确以外，还应该统一。其次，分类型段落主题句应告知读者你所划分的类别数以及具体的类别。例如：

EG1.Chairs fall into four categories according to their physical design：racking chairs，folding chairs，armchairs，and straight chairs.

EG2.College students automatically divide themselves into three groups in attitudes towards the campus activities.The first group takes an enthusiastic attitude，the second group shows a negative one，and the third appears to be passive.

(3)对分类类别的要求

1)分类应该完整。确保所要说明事物的每个成员都被包括在所分的类别里。哪怕只有一个遗漏，这样的分类都是不完整。例如：如果按学历把教师分成有学士学位的和有硕士学位的两类就不够完整，因为这个分类把具有博士学位的老师排除在外了。

EG3.Drinks may be classified into two main groups：alcoholic and nonalcoholic.Alcoholic drinks may be divided into spirits，wine，and beer.Non-alcoholic drinks may be divided into hot and cold drinks.Examples of hot drinks are tea，coffee，cocoa.Cold drinks may be grouped according to whether or not they are aerated.Lemonade，tonic water，soda water and Coca-Cola are examples of aerated drinks.Non-aerated drinks may be(sub-)divided into squashes，fruit juice，and others.

2)确保所分的类别在等级上是并列平行的。同一级别的分类其表达方式尽量结构相当，并且对每个类别的阐述方面应保持一致。

EG4.We can communicate in three basic ways.Each way has its advantages.One way is by speaking.When we speak we have a chance to judge our audience's reactions.If they don't understand，we can repeat as necessary to make our points.We can also introduce additional questions and clarify additional aspects for our listeners.Another way of communication is by writing.When we write，we have more time.We can think of our subject thoroughly.We can modify our development and polish our phraseology until we get it the way we want it.The third way of communicating is nonverbal.Communication of this type can involve such actions as a look，a nod of the head，or a shake of the head.Nonverbal communication can be quite effective in a very noisy atmosphere，or when we don't want to dignify a response with actual orders.

(4)分类型段落的语言

A.词语和句型

category种类，类型，范畴

class种类，类别，等级

division类别，部分

degree程度，阶层，等级

kind种类，性质

group组

style类型，形式

type类型，形式

major category主要类别，主要种类

subcategory次要类别，次要种类

general class总类别

subclass次级，分等级

comprise包含，包括

contain包含

embrace包含，包括

include包括

break...into分成

categorize...into把……分成，把……归类

classify...into把……分类，把……归类

composed of由……组成，由……构成

consist of由……组成，由……构成

divide...into把……分为

fall into分成……

group...into把……归成(几类)

organize...into把……归成(几类)

place...into将……置于

sort...into把……分成

There are many kinds(classes，categories，type)of...有许多种……

There are at least three classifications of...……至少有三类

These categories will be discussed in some detail in...对这几类将在……加以仔细讨论

The classification is based on...根据……进行的分类

...may be(further)divided into...……可以(进一步)分为……

B.参考例句

①The three types of problems old people face are that their children often desert them，they live on a fixed income and many old people have illness or at least they cannot get around very well.

老人面临的三个问题是：他们的子女经常抛弃他们，他们靠固定工资生活；许多老人有病，或者至少他们行动很不方便。

②In our university students are divided into English majors，history majors，computer science majors mathematics majors and so forth.

在我们大学，学生专业分为英语专业史、历史专业、计算机专业、数学专业，等等。

③Our history course was broken into four historical periods that were divided into minicourses in themselves.

我们的历史课程分为四个有历史意义的阶段。这四个阶段本身又分为若干小型课程。

④Researchers have identified two types of young mathematicians.

研究人员一致认为有两种类型的年轻数学家。

⑤Our reference room contains three kinds of literary magazines.

我们的资料室有三种文学杂志。

⑥Natural food basically falls into two groups.

天然食物基本分为两类。

⑦English words can be classified into three types of words.

英语单词有三种类型。

⑧Students usually classify their teachers by the teaching styles，academic level and the attitudes towards teaching.

学生通常根据教学方式、学术水平、教学态度对老师进行分类。

⑨Every educated person had at least two ways of speaking his mother tongue.The first....The second....

每个受教育的人至少用两种方式讲母语：第一，……；第二，……

⑩All substances may be classified electrically as conductors or insulators，according to the degree of resistance，which the medium offers to the flow of current.

根据媒介对电流流动的阻碍程度，所有物体可分为导体和绝缘体。

Anthropologists tend to group societies together according to the complexity of their culture.

人类学家根据各社会文化的复杂程度，对社会进行分类。

Psychology，as defined，comprises a number of different kinds of enterprises.

按其定义，心理学家包括若干不同的方面。

(5)练习

1)Now study the next four paragraphs and see how the writer put classification into use.

Model 1

Education in the United States is usually divided into four levels.The first level is early childhood education.Its main purpose is to prepare children for school；the second level is elementary education.It is divided into six or eight grades，and children learn Reading，Arithmetic，Writing，Social Studies and Science.They also have Art，Music，and Physical Education；the third level is secondary education.It is for junior and senior high school students.Some students take courses to prepare themselves for college.Other students take technical or vocational courses that prepare them for jobs after they graduate from high school；the fourth level is higher education.Technical institutes offer two-year programs in electronics，engineering，business and other subjects.After two years at a junior college，students receive an associate degree and then they can continue at a four-year college.

(In this paragraph the author divides the American's education into four levels.And he also uses detailed classification in some levels.)

Model 2

Every educated person has at least two ways of speaking his mother tongue.The first is that which he employs in his family，among his familiar friends，and on ordinary occasions.The second is that which he uses in discoursing on more complicated subjects，and in addressing persons with whom he is less intimately acquainted.It is，in short，the language which he employs when he is“on his dignity”，as he puts on evening dress when he is going to dine.

(In this paragraph，the classification is clear.The methods of speaking one's mother tongue are divided into two ways.)

Model 3

All subjects may be classified electrically as conductors or insulators，according to the degree of resistance which the medium offers to the flow of current.Most liquids，particularly solutions in liquids，are good conductors.Most gases at normal temperature and pressure are good insulators，but gases maintained at low pressure in a sealed tube allow a flow of current to take place as a result of ionization(离子化)of the gas molecules.Solids vary greatly in resistance，some being very good conductors，while others are so resistant that they are referred to as insulators.

(In this paragraph the author classified all subjects into two types.)

Model 4

A drink may be classified according to whether or not it contains alcohol.Therefore，there are two types of drinks：alcoholic and non-alcoholic.Alcoholic drinks are spirits，wine，beer，and the like.Non-alcoholic drinks may be subdivided into hot drinks and cold drinks.Among hot drinks are tea and coffee whereas cold drinks may be further subdivided into aerated(充气的)and non-aerated drinks.Lemonade，Coca-Cola and mineral waters are examples of aerated drinks which are charged with carbonic acid gas；fruit juices and others，such as milk are non-aerated drinks.

(The second sentence is the typical use of classification.)

2)Study the following words and divide them into groups，giving a name to each of the groups.

(They can be classified according to food value，according to the time of day at which they are usually eaten，according to price，etc.)

breadmeatlettucemilkpotatoessoupeggsice creampie

3)Develop the following topic sentence into a paragraph by using classification.We can communicate in three basic ways.Each way has its advantages.

(For reference：One way is by speaking.When we speak we have a chance to judge our audience's reactions.If they don't understand，we can repeat as necessary to make our opinions.We can also introduce additional questions and clarify additional aspects for our listeners.Another way of communication is by writing.When we write，we have more time.We can think of our subject thoroughly.We can modify our development and polish our phraseology until we get it the way we want it.The third way of communicating is nonverbal.Communication of this type can involve such actions as a look，a nod of the head，or a shake of the head.Nonverbal communication can be quite effective in a very noisy atmosphere，or when we don't want to dignify a response with actual orders.)

4)Writing assignment Write an essay on one of the following topics：

a.my friends

b.the temples I have been to

c.the books I like

d.the restaurants I have been to

e.TV programs(entertainment，education，commerce)

f.College students

因果分析法用于阐述和分析事件产生的原因和结果。某一事件或现象产生的原因是什么，造成了什么样的结果，产生了什么样的影响?这些问题都需要采用因果分析法来说明。文章的重点可以是在分析原因上，也可以是在讨论结果上。使用这种方法时要注意在一因多果或一果多因的情况下，抓住主要的写，不要面面俱到。

(1)写作模版

The role of women in today's society is changing.One reason is thatwomen have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the women's movement.Also，women are aware of the alternatives to stayingat home.Another reason is thatincreasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women.Moreover，men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.

Why Some College Students Are Absent from Class

In many colleges and universities，some students are often absent from class.Some of them teach themselves in the library，but some others just idle away the precious time.

As for the reasons，both the students and teachers should be responsible.

College students have a free life.If some students are not strict with themselves，they will oversleep in the morning and get up too late to attend class.Besides，some other students are too busy making money and often forget their classes.

Teachers shouldalsobe responsible for students'absence from class.Some of their teaching methods are not lively and can't arouse the students'interests.Old material is another reason，and this is the main reason why some top students are absent from class，because they can't get enough knowledge in class.

In a word，both ofthe students and teachers should be strict with themselves in order to learn or teach well.

(2)主题句

四级作文因为篇幅所限，不宜既谈原因又谈结果，往往只需要侧重详细介绍一个方面。因此段落的首句应清楚地向读者展示文章将着重阐述原因还是结果。

EG1.The effects of long-distance running are psychologically uplifting.

EG2.The Women's Movement has brought about great changes to the British society.Because of the Women's Movement and with its development，it has had several effects on the English language.

EG3.There are two primary causes for the increase in the number of people who take a second job.

EG4.The factors for a big rise in the teenage smoking are complex.

EG5.The explanations for students'failure to follow a lecture involve some interrelated factors.For one thing，...For another...Still another...

(3)因果分析模式

原因和结果可能是一种，也可能是多种，不能把所有的材料都写去，必须深入地加以研究和分析，认真地组织和处理因果关系。通常，主要的、本质的原因和结果材料要详写，过渡性、交待性材料要略写。为此，在写作前最好能够将因果材料编列提纲，并根据主体的需要，明确主次、确定取舍，从而按照因果分析的模式来扩大和深化主题。因果分析采用的模式有以下几种：

多因单果式

例如在分析李明在一次车祸中受伤一事时，即可以分析李明受伤的原因，又可以介绍这次车祸给李明带来的后患，而且不管原因还是结果都不可能是单方面的。如果我们分析原因则属于多因单果式的段落。

在拓展多因单果段落时，一般要求先简要阐明结果，然后迅速转为对导致该结果的原因的详细分析。例如：

EG6.According to a recent survey，about 15%of Chinese college students now hold a part-time job or temporary job.Why do they want odd jobs?The primary reason，I think，is money.Feeling the financial pressure as books，movies and bus fares have all gone up in price，there is scarcely a young boy or girl who does not want to earn a little money to help cover the increasingly higher college costs，and at best save enough to go travelling or buy things they have long desired.In this way they hope to be economically independent and avoid the indignity of having to ask for money again and again.Besides they want to gain some experience in the ways of society.Students growing up from nursery school to college only know about books and have trouble dealing with realities.Working on a part-time basis can provide them with a rare opportunity to know the outside world and prepare them for a future career.

单因多果式

这种模式下的段落可以首先引出原因，然后重点阐述此原因带来的后果。我们仍然以李明在车祸中受伤为例：

这种模式下的段落可以首先引出原因，然后重点阐述此原因带来的后果，此时的这几个后果应呈并列关系，不能互为因果关系。请看下面关于电视给人类带来的影响的例子。

Introduction：Television undoubtedly offers us much entertainment，but it has some bad

effects on heavy viewers.

Body—Effect 1：Firstly，TV encourages passive enjoyment.

Effect 2：Secondly，TV prevents viewers from communicating with the real world.

Effect 3：Worst of all，rubbishy commercials and harmful programs lead to bad tastes and distorted viewpoint towards human life，and even poison one's mind.

连锁因果式

在这种模式中，每一个原因都是一个结果，而这个结果又成了另一个原因，依次类推，类似多米诺效应。例如：

EG7.　　　　　　　A causes B

B causes C

C causes D，etc.

Asthe price of everything from toothpaste to tuition increases，workers demand higher wages to keep up with rising costs.This canproducefurther increases in prices or a decreased demand for manufactured goods，or both.Sinceproduction tries to keep pace with demand，decreased demand is followed by decreased production.This，in turn，can lead to layoffs and unemployment，which further decrease the demand for goods.

(4)段落结尾

由于段落里提到多个原因或多个结果，为了表述清晰，段末有必要对全段内容进行概述，如：

EG8.In a word，mechanical，institutional and human factors all lead to an air crash.

EG9.In general，diligence，aggressiveness and wide range of social contacts all contributed to his success.

EG10.In conclusion(In summary，Above all)，the examination of the bird in the area resulted from hunting with firearms，ranching activities and the building of beach resorts.

(5)因果分析型段落的语言

A.词语和句

accordingly因此，所以

consequently因此，由此

hence因此

since既然

therefore因此，所以

thus因而

as a result of作为……的结果

as a result结果

the effect of……的结果

caused by由……引起

influenced(affected)by受……的影响

account for是……的原因

attribute to归因于……

contribute to有助于……，导致

give rise to产生，引起，使发生

lead to致使，导致

result in导致，引起

result from起因于，由……造成

be responsible for应对……负责，是……的原因

be involved in卷入，与……有关

be related to与……有关

have a good(bad)effect(influence)on对……有好的(不良的)影响

The consequence is结果是

There are several reasons for...(why...)……有若干原因

The reasons for...are as follows.……的原因如下

The reasons why...can be traced to...……的原因可追溯到……

Perhaps the primary(main，fundamental，most important)reason is...可能最主要(主要，根本，重要)的原因是……

Thanks to(Owing to，Due to，Because of，As a result of)...由于……

...not(not only，not so much)come(arise，derive，stem，spring)from...，but(but also，as)from...……不仅起因于……，而且还因为……

One may attribute(ascribe，owe)the increase(decrease，change)to...可以把增加(减少，变化)归因于……

B.参考例句

①The industrial pollution of our rivers and lakes has resulted in many economic hardships and health hazards for the people who depend upon these water sources for their livelihood.

我国河流和湖泊的工业污染不仅造成了许多经济困难，而且还危害了以这些水源为生的人民的健康。

②There were many factors that contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

有许多因素共同引发了第二次世界大战的爆发。

③Although not all historians concur on the causes of the Revolutionary War，most agree on the two major causes.

虽然不是所有的历史学家对美国独立战争的起因看法都一致，但大多数历史学家认为有两个主要原因。

④The other cause，according to most historians，was the economic rivalry between the two societies.

另一个原因，按多数历史学家的说法，是这两种社会间的经济竞争。

⑤Besides polluting the air and congesting the cities，cars are involved in more than half the disabling accidents.

除了污染空气和使城市拥挤之外，汽车还造成一半以上的伤残事故。

⑥Heavy smoking can lead to lung cancer.

大量吸烟可导致肺癌。

⑦Pollution has created man-made hazards.

污染已经造成了人为的危害。

⑧Automobiles and factories are responsible for two-thirds of the smog in this city.

这座城市三分之二的空气污染是由汽车和工厂造成的。

⑨The smog presents the possibility of a whole new kind of epidemic due to the polluted environment.

由于环境污染这些烟雾有可能产生出一种全新的流行病。

⑩This chemicals–producing factory accounts for almost 60%of poisons being dumped into the river.

这条河流里几乎60%的有毒物质是这家化工厂产品制造厂排放的。

The newly developed advertising has also given rise to a very unpleasant effect—fake advertising.

最新发展的广告业也产生了一个令人讨厌的结果——虚假广告。

As a result，false advertising has become one of the major obstacles to China's economy development.

结果，虚假广告成了中国经济发展的主要障碍之一。

This phenomenon can be attributed to three general causes.One cause is the influence of...Another factor is that...And the most influential cause is that...

这种现象可归因于三个主要原因。一个是……的影响。另一个因素是……。最有影响的一个原因是……。

Consequently，the natives suffer a lot from the polluted water.

因此，本地人深受水污染之害。

(6)练习

1)For each of the following topics，write a topic sentence for a cause-and-effect analysis.Then indicate whether the paragraph will explain causes or effects.The first one is done as an example.

a.homelessnessBoth economic and social factors can lead to homelessness.(to explain causes of homelessness).

b.failing an exam___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

c.moving to a new city_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

d.working while attending school__________________________________________________________________.

2)After each topic sentence，write one cause or one effect in a general statement.Then note a specific point that could be made after the general statement.The first one is done as an example.

a.Thesis statement：Our football team is doing poorly for three reasons.

General statement/Major support(one of the three reasons/causes)：Many of ourplayers are inexperienced freshmen.

Specific point/Minor support：Michael，the quarterback；Tom，the end；Jerry andNicolas in the backfield are all first-year players.

b.Thesis statement：Jan is failing history，and no one is surprised.

General statement：________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Specific：_____________________________________________________________________________________

c.Thesis statement：Owning a pet can be beneficial.

General statement：___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Specific：_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

d.Thesis statement：Several benefits will come from receiving education.

General statement：__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Specific：_____________________________________________________________________________________

3)Cause and effect relationship is often related to chronological order in that the result usually follows the cause in time.You must be alert not to confuse the two relationships.NOT EVERY CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE is CAUSE and Effect.

a.Decide if the following pairs of sentences are CAUSE and EFFECT or only CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.

①Mary has a vitamin C deficiency.Mary has a skin disease.

②John cut his finger with a sharp knife.John's finger bled.

③The Jones family went to the movies last Saturday.The Jones children ate popcornat the movies.

④Peter's car ran out of gas.Peter had to walk to the nearest gas station.

⑤Peter's girl friend hit him on the head with her handbag.Peter's car ran out of gas on the way to the beach.

b.Consider the pairs of sentences in A.Decide which category they fit：

Necessarily CAUSE and EFFECT

Probably CAUSE and EFFECT

Possibly CAUSE and EFFECT

Unlikely CAUSE and EFFECT

Unrelated in terms of CAUSE and EFFECT

c.Join each of the pairs of sentences to form one sentence which clearly indicates the relationship between the two parts.You may use the above-mentioned transitions

4)Here are possible topics for your cause-and-effect analysis.Remember to settle on causes or effects；do not try to explain both.

①Explain why there is job discrimination against women in China.

②Explain why some young men do not want to marry a capable young woman.

③Explain the importance of keeping a good mood.

④Explain what causes people to receive education.

⑤Explain the reasons why so many Chinese farmers leave the countryside to work in cities.

⑥Explain what would happen if there were no electricity/television/telephone in our life.

⑦Explain the positive or negative effects of pop music.

⑧Explain the negative effects of smoking.

⑨Explain the effects of China's only-child policy.

⑩Explain the effects of divorce in present-day China.

比较法是在解释说明陌生、抽象的事物时将其与人们熟悉的事物放在一起，分析比较他们的相似之处，从而达到揭示新事物的目的。对照法则是将说明对象与人们熟悉的事物进行对比找出彼此的不同之处，其目的在于发现两者之间的区别。

(1)写作模板

Two University Systems

It was not until I joined an American university that I realized the fact that the American and Lebanese systems of coll

ege education differ in manyways.As a result，studying in America seems to be much easier than doing so in Lebanon.

The conditions for admission are the very first difference.In my case，this American university asked only from my TOEFL scores and my high school grades.In addition to these，a Lebanese university asked me to take another three tests.The first was the English Entrance Exam，which is much harder than the TOEFL.The second was the Scientific Qualification Exam，which includes mathematics，physics，and chemistry.The results of the SQ exam decide whether a student is eligible to take the third test or not.Obviously，the difference is clear.

The second major difference between the two systems is the path that is followed in order to graduate.In America，every field of study has certain requirements that must be achieved.There are no restrictions on how or in how many years they are achieved.Whether a person takes one course at a time or more than that，he is free，as long as he passes them all.In contrast to this，a college degree in Lebanon consists of several years.Each year is made up of several courses and the failure to pass any two of these courses costs a student the whole year，which must then be repeated.If the student fails the same year for a second time，he is considered ineligible for a college degree and he must drop out.

Another major difference is the amount of work needed each semester.The number of hours studied in an American university per weekhas anupper limit of eighteen hours.A full-time student has lower limit of twelve hours，but no such limit exists for a part-time student.In Lebanon，

on the other hand，only one limit exists.Each student must really be dedicated to studying.He must put aside his personal interests and habits and forget about his free time.

Even thoughboth systemsprovide a good education，one system makes earning a college degree much easier than the other.Of course，this system is the American one.

(2)主题句

主题句首先应介绍比较的对象是什么，其次应说明本段的意旨：是打算比较两事物的相同点，还是相异点。

EG1.My father and my mother are different both in their appearance and character.

EG2.Despite their obvious differences in length，the paragraph and the essay are similar in 3 ways.

(3)比较对照的方法

比较和对照一般有两种组织方法。一种是逐项比较和对照法(point-by-point comparison/contrast)，就是将两个比较对象的相同点或不同点逐点逐条地进行介绍，使各自的特点形成鲜明对比。这种组织方法有利于读者对其内容直接清楚地加以认识和辨析。

EG3.My hometown and my college town have several things in common.First，both are small rural communities.For example，my hometown，Gridlock，has a population of only about 10，000 people.Similarly，my college town，Subnormal，consists of about 11，000 local residents.This population swells to 15，000 people when the college students are attending classes.A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas.Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland，which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.In the same way，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle...

Topic Sentence：My hometown and my college town have several things in common.

Point 1：First，both are small rural communities.

A.Gridlock：has a population of only about 10，000 people.

B.Subnormal：consists of about 11，000 local residents

Point 2：A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas.

A.Gridlock：is surrounded by many acres of farmland，which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.

B.Subnormal：lies in the center of farmland，which is used to raise hogs and cattle.

另一种组织方法是整体比较或对照法(subject-by-subject comparison/contrast)，即首先集中说明第一个比较对象的若干特征或细节，然后再过渡到集中说明第二个比较对象的若干特征或细节。同样的内容，也可以这样组织文章：

EG4.My hometown and my college town have several things in common.First，my hometown，Gridlock，is a small town.It has a population of only about 10，000 people.Located in a rural area，Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland，which are devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.Gridlock also contains a college campus，Neutron College，which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival.As for my college town，Subnormal，it too is small，having a population of about 11，000 local residents，which swells to 15，000 people when students from the nearby college are attending classes.Like Gridlock，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle.Finally，Subnormal is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful college campus，called Quark College.This college is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

Topic Sentence：My hometown and my college town have several things in common.

Subject A：Gridlock

　　　　　　1.is a small town

　　　　　　2.located in a rural area

　　　　　　3.also contains a college campus

Subject B：Subnormal

　　　　　　1.it is too small

　　　　　　2.lies in the center of farmland

　　　　　　3.also boasts a beautiful college campus

一篇文章可以综合运用这两种方法，比如下面的文章首先运用整体比较法阐述两者的相同点，接着运用逐项比较法解释两者的差异。

EG5.　　　　　　Churchill and Roosevelt

Roosevelt，as a public personality，was a spontaneous，optimistic，pleasure-loving ruler who dismayed his assistants by the gay and apparently heedless abandon with which he seemed to delight in pursuing two or more totally incompatible policies，and astonished them even more by the swiftness and ease with which he managed to throw off the cares of office during the darkest and most dangerous moments.Churchill too loves pleasure，and he too lacks neither gaiety nor a capacity for exuberant self-expression together with the habit of blithely cutting Gordian knots in a manner which often possesses a dimension of depth—and a corresponding sense of tragic possibilities，which Roosevelt's lighthearted genius instinctively passed by.

Roosevelt played the game of politics with virtuosity，and both his successes and his failures were carried off in splendid style；his performance seemed to flow with effortless skill.Churchill is acquainted with darkness as well as light.Like all inhabitants and even transient visitors of inner worlds，he gives evidence of seasons of agonized brooding and slow recovery that might have spoken of sweat and blood，but when offered his people's tears，he spoke a word which might have been uttered by Lincoln or Massini or Cromwell but not by Roosevelt，great-hearted，generous，and perceptive as he was.基本结构如下：

Subject by subject：Similarities between Roosevelt and Churchill

　　　　　　　　　　　A.Roosevelt loves pleasure，appears care-free，is high-spirited，effectively solves problems.

　　　　　　　　　　　B.Churchill loves pleasure，appears care-free，is high-spirited，effectively solves problems.

Point by point：Differences between Roosevelt and Churchill

　　　　　　　　　1.Behavior

　　　　　　　　　　Roosevelt plays the game of politics.

　　　　　　　　　　Churchill broods about the potentially tragic reality.

　　　　　　　　　2.Emotional depth

　　　　　　　　　　Roosevelt lacks deep emotion.

　　　　　　　　　　Churchill feels deeply.

此外，类比作为比较的一种特例，在解释说明陌生、抽象、新生的对象时有意想不到的效果。请看下面对电流的解释和对死亡的剖析两例：

EG6.Electricity is transferred from one place to another in much the same manner as water.A water pipe performs the same function as a length of wire.The pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of use.A blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipe.Both give out due to extreme pressure applied to the wails of the carrier.A switch is to electricity what a faucet is to water.Both of them control the flow of the substance.Since electricity and water have some common properties，understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the electrician.

EG7.Some old people are oppressed by the fear of death.The best way to overcome it—so at least it seems to me—is to make your interests gradually wider and more impersonal，until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede，and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life.An individual human existence should be like a river—small at first，narrowly contained within its'banks，and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls.Gradually the river grows wider，the banks recede，the waters flow more quietly and in the end，without any visible break，they become merged in the sea，and painlessly lose their individual being.The man who，in old age，can，see his life in this way，will not suffer from the fear of death，since the things he cares for will continue—

(4)比较对照的写作基本要领

1)正确选出两个同类事物

进行比较或对照的两个事物必须属于同类，必须是可以互相比较或对比的。比如下面事物就可以比较或对比：

*Summer in the City and Summer in the Country

*College Life and the Life in High School

*Old and New Ways of Treating Children

*Two Roommates

*Good Service and Bad Service

*Travel by Train and Travel by Air

*Baseball and Football

*English Teachers and Chinese Teachers

2)目的明确主题突出

比较和对照是表达的手段，不是目的。目的是通过比较更充分的表达文章的主题思想。比如比较城市与郊区的区别，其目的不是简单的表明：“There are some similarities or differences between life in the city and life in the suburb.”，而是更加鲜明有力地阐明像这样的主题思想：“Life is easier in the city than in the suburbs.Or the city is full of excitement but the suburbs are boring.Or life in the suburb is surprisingly similar to living in the city”。

3)在运用逐项对比或对照法时，每一点谈论的两事物顺序应保持一致。如果第一条先介绍A，后介绍B，则接下来的几点里一直要遵循先A后B原则。整体比较法中，每个物体介绍的几个方面不仅内容应该相同，而且顺序也应保持一致。请看下面两例：

EG8.The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients.Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf，and hospital patients can also.Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change，and certainly hospital patients must do the same.No one appreciates a complaining，unpleasant，unappreciative houseguest，and the hospital staff is no exception.House guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long.Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel he same way about patients in their care.Just as houseguests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits，so patients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.

EG9.On-campus living arrangements are quite different from off-campus ones.In a dorm，the supervision is usually greater；it is more an extension of the watchfulness of parents，with other people noticing your comings and goings，establishing fixed eating times，sometimes restricting guests.Living on campus also means sharing with many other students，not only a room but also meals，showers，telephones，and soap operas.Privacy and dorm living are mutually exclusive，but loneliness is unlikely.Off-campus housing，on the other hand，allows much more personal freedom.Whether or not you go out or come home is up to you.Eating or starving is up to you.Privacy is a constant option，but also the enforced privacy of loneliness is more possible.Off campus，you really notice when there's nothing to do.

4)正确运用过渡词语和过渡句。段落内从一个比较内容过渡到另一个内容时，需要恰当地使用表示比较的过渡词语，比如：in the same way，similarly，equally important等；将两个事物形成对比时，需要用表示对比的过渡词语，比如：unlike，in contrast，on the other hand等。这些过渡词语在上下文中起着起承转合的作用，使内容连贯。

EG10.Luis and Mario are different in three ways.First，Luis studies a lot.He wants to get all A's.Otherwise he wouldn't be admitted to medical school when he graduates.On the other hand，Mario rarely studies.He just wants a B.A.Second，Luis never has time for sports.He doesn't have time to play.However，he sometimes watches a game.In contrast，Mario spends most of his time playing soccer or basketball.Third，Luis doesn't like parties.After all，they usually last until 2：00 A.M.And he needs lots of sleep.But Mario loves parties.He gets to bed very late.For some reason，he doesn't seem to need as much sleep as Luis does.In spite of their differences，Luis and Mario are good friends.

段落中间从一个部分过渡到另一个部分，常在转换的地方用过渡句。比如： Yet these two cultures，so apparently opposite in almost every way，have always possessed a strange affinity for each other.

In spite of these disadvantages，there are some major advantages of modern advertisements.

On the other hand，those who are opposed to euthanasia argue that euthanasia is a criminal.

On the contrary，independent study can have the following effects which cannot be derived from following lectures.

Different from all other media，television penetrates nearly every home in the country.

Nonetheless，there still exist some weaknesses.

By contrast，a loser often shows some characteristics that a winner does not possess.

(5)对比型段落的语言

A.词语和句型

alike同样的

equal相等的，相同的

similarly相似的，类似的

likewise同样的，照样的

just as正如，就像

the same as和……一样

appear identical似乎相同

appear the same看起来一样

in like manner以同样的方式，同样

in the same way以同样的方式，同样

in comparison with与……相比

share(have)...in common在……有共同之处

resemble each other彼此相像

bear much resemblance to...与……有许多相似之处

compare...with...把……与……相比

be compared with...与……比较

make a comparison between...在……之间进行比较

There are a lot similarities between...在……之间有许多相似之处。

A and B resemble(are similar)in several ways.A和B在好几个方面相同。

A....And the same can be applied(is true)for B.A...。这些对B一样适用。

B.参考例句

①Karen and Jane are alike in that they are both intelligent.

凯伦和珍妮都很聪明。

②Similarly，he enjoys playing football.

他同样喜欢足球。

③Likewise，he is interested in music and sports.

同样，他对音乐和体育也感兴趣。

④Both girls come from similar backgrounds and follow similar patterns in trying to adapt to the complexities of city life.

这两个女孩来自类似的家庭背景，并以同样的方式试图来适应复杂的城市生活。

⑤Like Jim，Tom thinks sports can train people's character.

跟吉姆一样，汤姆也认为运动能锻炼人的性格。

⑥In the same way，we seek to explain the phenomenon.

我们也试图以同样的方式来解释这一现象。

⑦Equally important，school activities can help students to broaden their horizons.

同样重要的是，学校活动也能帮助学生开拓视野。

⑧Jean and Jane share many things in common.

吉恩和珍妮在许多事情上有共同之处。

⑨They resemble each other in their personalities.

他们的个性彼此相似。

⑩The two places bear a close physical resemblance.

这两个地区有着非常相似的自然环境。

There are some striking similarities between the two islands.

这两个岛屿有显著的相似之处。

These two teachers appear identical in the teaching style，attitudes toward students，and approaches to materials.

这两个老师在教学风格、对学生的态度，以及在处理教材的方法上都很相似。

(6)对照型段落的语言

A.词语和句型

although尽管，虽然

however然而，不过

nevertheless然而，不过

otherwise否则，不然

whereas而，然而

unlike不像，与……不一样

conversely相反地

by(in)contrast与……形成对照

on the contrary正相反

in opposition to与……相反，与……对立

dissimilar to不同于

differ from不同于

on the other hand另一方面

make a contrast between使……两者形成对照

have nothing(little)in common……没有相同之处

A and B differ(are different)in several ways.A和B在好几个方面不同。

A....but the same cannot be applied for B.A...，但这些对B都不适用。

B.参考例句

①She has chosen to study social sciences.Instead，Jane has decided to pursue physical science.

她选择研究社会科学，而珍妮决定研究自然科学。

②New Zealand is only an island，whereas(while)Australia is a whole continent.

新西兰只是一个岛屿，而澳大利亚是一个大陆。

③Although the parallels in the development of these two countries are striking，there are some sharp contrasts as well.

尽管这两个国家的发展有着引人注目的相似之处，但也有一些显著差异。

④The playing styles of the two football players differ from each other in some obvious ways.

这两个足球运动员的踢球风格在某些方面明显不相同。

⑤At the South Pole，monthly mean temperatures run well below zero.In contrast，near the North Pole monthly mean temperatures often rise above freezing.

南极的月平均气温远远低于零度。相反，北极附近的月平均气温常常在冰点以上。

⑥Yet the two cultures，so apparently opposite in almost every way，have always possessed an affinity for each other.

这两个国家的文化几乎在各个方面有着非常明显的差异，但是它们彼此却总是有奇异的吸引力。

⑦Television presents a world of clarity and simplicity；it bears little resemblance to reality.

电视展现了一个简单明了的世界，与现实世界并没有多少相似之处。

(7)练习

1)Find out the method used in the following paragraphs.First note down if it is a paragraph of comparison or contrast；then further tell us if the comparison or contrast is developed by the way of point by point or subject by subject.

Eg1：The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients.Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf，andhospital patients canalso.Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change，andcertainly hospital patients must dothe same.No one appreciates a complaining，unpleasant，unappreciative houseguest，andthe hospital staff isno exception.House guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long.Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feelthe same wayabout patients in their care.Just ashouseguests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits，sopatients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.

Eg2：My hometown and my college town have several things in common.First，bothare small rural communities.For example，my hometown，Gridlock，has a population of only about 10，000 people.Similarly，my college town，Subnormal，consists of about11，000 local residents.This population swells to 15，000 people when the college students are attending classes.A second way in which these two towns are similaris that they are both located in rural areas.Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.In the same way，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle...

Eg3：My hometown and my college town have several things in common.First，my hometown，Gridlock，is a small town.It has a population of only about 10，000 people.Located in a rural area，Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.Gridlockalsocontains a college campus，Neutron College，which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival.As for my college town，Subnormal，it is too small，having a population of about 11，000 local residents，which swells to 15，000 people when students from the nearby college are attending classes.LikeGridlock，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle.Finally，Subnormalis similar to Gridlock in thatit also boasts a beautiful college campus，called Quark College.This college is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

Eg 4：On-campus living arrangementsare quite different fromoff-campus ones.In a dorm，the supervision is usually greater；it is more an extension of the watchfulness of parents，with other people noticing your comings and goings，establishing fixed eating times，sometimes restricting guests.Living on campus also means sharing with many other students，not only a room but also meals，showers，telephones，and soap operas.Privacy and dorm living are mutually exclusive，but loneliness is unlikely.Off-campus housing，on the other hand，allows much more personal freedom.Whether or not you go out or come home is up to you.Eating or starving is up to you.Privacy is a constant option，but also the enforced privacy of loneliness is more possible.Off campus，you really notice when there's nothing to do.

2)Underline the collectives used in the following paragraphs to express comparison and contrast.

My hometown and my college town have several things in common.First，both are small rural communities.For example，my hometown，Gridlock，has a population of only about 10，000 people.Similarly，my college town，Subnormal，consists of about 11，000 local residents.This population swells to 15，000 people when the college students are attending classes.A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas.Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.In the same way，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle.Thirdly，these towns are similar in that they contain college campuses.Gridlock，for example，is home to Neutron College，which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival.Likewise，the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College，which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S.，they are strikingly different in many ways.For example，the physical size of each state is different.Arizona is large，having an area of 114，000 square miles，whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size，having an area of only 1，214 square miles.Another difference is in the size of the population of each state.Arizona has about four million people living in it，but Rhode Island has less than one million.The two states also differ in the kinds of natural environments that each has.For example，Arizona is a very dry state，consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year.However，Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year.In addition，while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore，Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

3)Fill in blanks with the connectives listed at the beginning of each paragraph.

however　　　　　　　　　　 also

likewise　　　　　　　　　　while

another difference　　　　　but

similarly　　　　　　　　　　on the other hand

whereas

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S.，they are different in many ways.For example，the physical size of each state is different.Arizona is large，having an area of 114，000 square miles，Rhode Island is only about a_______ tenth the size，having an area of only 1，214 square milesis._____ in the size of the population of each state.Arizona has about four million people living in it，______ Rhode Island has less than one million.The two states also differ in the kinds of natural environments that each has.For example，Arizona is a very dry state，consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfallevery year.______，Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year.In addition，Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore，Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

in the same way　　　　　　　　　 　whereas

likewise　　　　　　　　　　　　　 　too

alike　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　while

similarity　　　　　　　　　　　　　 both

similarly　　　　　　　　　　　　　　however

Even though we come from different cultures，my wife and I are______in several ways.For one thing，we are_______thirty-two years old.In fact，our birthdays are in the same month，hers on July 10 and mine on July 20._______is that we both grew up in large cities.Helene was born and raised in Paris and I come from Yokohama.Third，our hobbies are alike too.My wife devotes a lotof her free time to playing jazz piano._______

I like to spend time after work strumming my guitar.A more important similarity concerns our values.For example，Helene has strong opinions about educating our children and raising them to know right from wrong.I feel our children should receive a good education and also have strong moral training.

4)Writing Assignment

Write an essay on one of the following topics：

1)Life in Middle School and in College

2)Chinese and Foreign Teachers

3)Youth of the 2000s and Youth of the 1990s

4)Traveling by Train and by Plane

在讲故事、叙述事件时，最简单明了的方法就是按时间顺序来描述。先发生的先写，后发生的后写。这种以时间为主要线索的叙述方法就叫做顺叙。

(1)写作模板

The Secret Smoker

Cheating parents unintentionally sometimes can create an everlasting regret in a child's mind.

When I was in junior school，I had a real fascination with smoking.I wanted to try some cigarettes like the more“sophisticated”girls who would smoke in the bathrooms or recess.Since neither of my parents smoked，I was determined to keep it a secret.

On Saturday afternoonI'd often go to the bowling alley with friends and stay there until 7：00 or 8：00 p.m..We'd bowl play the pinball machines and talk to the guys from school.One afternoon，I noticed some cigarette butts in these tall metal ashtrays filled with sand.The cigarettes were stuck in the sand，and some of them looked pretty long，like someone had just taken looking，I put a few of the longer ones in my pocket and waited until dark.ThenI stuck out behind the bowling alley，lit a cigarettes that had been in other people's mouths，but I got a thrill from it.I started sneaking smokes every time we went to the bowling alley.

After a few weeks of smoking at the bowling alley，one dayI noticed a small sample pack of cigarettes in my Dad's work car，probably left there by a business client.I swiped the pack and headed for the school grounds across from our house.I hid behind a baseball backstop and proceeded to smoke all five cigarettes in the pack，the first clean cigarettes I'd ever had.Then I went back to the house and started watching TV.

Later that day，Dad apparently noticed that the cigarette pack wasn't in his car.He came in and sat down beside me.I must have smelled like stale tobacco because he immediately asked me：

“Cellie，do you have anything you want to tell me?”

I felt a tightening in my chest，and I managed to whisper，“No，Pa.”then Dad said：

“Cellie，I know you took the cigarettes from the car and smoked them because you smell like tobacco.There's no use denying it.”

Well，I knew I was caught，but I just couldn't admit it to him.Trying to keep from crying，I blurted out：

“I didn't take any cigarettes from anywhere and I don't know what you're talking about.I don't smoke!”

Dad looked at me for a long time with his disappointed look，and then he finally said：

“Well，when you are ready to tell the truth，I'm ready to listen.”

I never did admit to my parents that I'd smoked those cigarettes，and they never asked me about them again.But to this day I still feel bad about telling my Dad such an obvious lie and leaving him to think that his“angel”had stooped to stealing cigarettes and smoking.(2)主题句

A good narrator often arranges the purpose of his or her story in the opening paragraph so as to give the reader a general idea about the story.The thesis statement tells what you will talk about(your subject)and what you think or feel about(your attitude).Since we all like stories，narratives provide a good method for developing topic sentences which can be supported by a single example.For instance：

1)An incidentthat happened to a friend of minemake me appreciate my parents.

　　　　Subject　　　　　　　　　　　　　attitude

2)My sister's wedding reception was a disaster.

　　　　　　　　　　　　Subject　　　　　　　　　　attitude

(3)时间线索安排

时间线索的提供一方面可以通过表示时间的连词、短语提供，如：at the beginning，in the morning，on Feb.19，1978。另一方面可以通过描述性的短语来交代，如：after I finished my homework，when he arrived at the airport等。此外，动词时态变幻也是时间变化的一个提示。请看下面文章是如何利用时间词语帮助展开整个事件的。

Letters to Mother

I was not quite seventeen when I decided to jointhe US Marine Corps.My mother tried her best to talk me out of my dream，then finally signed the papers that would permit me to enter the service.

Following“boot”training，I learned that I was being sent halfway round the world to Subic Bay Naval Base in the Philippines.BeforeI joined the Marines(舰队)，I had never been more than 80 kilometers away from my home in New Jersey.

One day，nearly two years after the Philippines becamemy home，I was summoned(召唤)to the office of Lieutenant Colonel Boyd.He seemed to be a kind man，but I was pretty sure that he hadn't called me in to pass the time of day.

Standing before his desk，I waited nervously as he read through some paperwork.Thenhe looked up.“Why，Private，haven't you written to your mother for more than six months?”I felt weak in my knees.Has it been that long?I thought.“I didn't have anything to say，sir.”The colonel looked at me incredulously(怀疑地).The truth was that we young Marines were having so much fun during our free time that anything else seemed unimportant to most of us.Lieutenant Colonel Boyd told me that my mother had contacted the American Red Cross，which in turn communicated with my commanding officer about my failure to write.Then he asked，“do you see that desk，Private?”

“Yes，Sir.”

“Open the top drawer and you'll find some paper and a pen.Sit down right this minute and find something to say to your mother.”

“Yes，Sir.”

When I finished a brief letter，I stood before him again.

“Private，I'm ordering you to find something to say to your mother at least once a week.Do you understand?”I did!

Some thirty-five years later，my aged(年迈)mother's mental condition was deteriorating(恶化)，and I was forced to place her in a convalescent home.As I wentthrough her belongs，I began inspecting the contents of an old cedar chest.At the bottom，tied with a bright red ribbon，I found a bundle of letters.

They were the letters I had been ordered to write from the Philippines.I sat on the floor of her apartment that afternoon reading each one，tears streaming down my cheeks.Inowrealized how deeply I，as a young man，had upset her by my lack of consideration.

The lesson I learned may have been too late to help my mother，but it's still done me good.

These daysI don't need a commanding officer standing over me to write my loved ones on a regular basis.

(4)按时间顺序扩展段落的语言

A.词语和句型

first，at first首先，起初　　　　　　　　　　finally最后，最终

right from the start一开始，起初　　　　　　in the end最后，最终

at the beginning一开始，起初　　　　　　　　 eventually最后，最终

before long不久　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　at last最后，最终

previously以前　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 on occasion有时

in the meantime同时　　　　　　　　　　　　　the next thing was to接下来是

at the same time同时　　　　　　　　　　　　 as soon as一……就

simultaneously同时　　　　　　　　　　　　　 by the time到……时

soon不久　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　hardly...when一……就

then然后　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　scarcely...than一……就

after that然后　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　whenever每当

next然后　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　directly一经……立即

afterwards然后，以后　　　　　　　　　　　　　instantly立即

shortly立刻，不久　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 the instant立即，一……就

subsequently随后，后来　　　　　　　　　　　　the moment立即，一……就

B.参考例句

①As the opening day draws near，there is much excitement and anticipation.

当开幕式即将来临时，人们兴奋不已，充满期望。

②As soon as we entered the park，we headed for the beach.

当我们一走进公园，就直奔海滩而去。

③Before long I realized that Professor Feng was not a serious person he appeared to be.

不久我就意识到冯教授不是一个像他看上去那么严肃的人。

④There was silence for a moment as the teacher surveyed us.

当老师环视我们的时候，我们安静了一会儿。

⑤The moment he left school，he started to work in a company.

他刚从学校毕业就进入一家公司工作了。

⑥The instant the bell rang，Tom jumped up to answer the question.

铃声一响，汤姆就立即跳起来回答这个问题。

⑦I remember with vividness the summer of 1997 during the two months in Dalian.

我对1997年夏天在大连的那两个月的生活依然记忆犹新。

⑧I haven't visited the campus since I graduated three years ago.

自从我三年前毕业后就再也没有回母校去看看了。

(5)练习

1)Read the following paragraph and answer questions

Homeward Trip

I am a Beijing girl studying at a university in Shanghai.At the end of every semester，scarcely have I felt relaxed after examinations when I begin to worry over another long and tedious homeward trip I have to take.

In previous times，at least I could kill time through chatting and playing cards with my schoolmates.Yet this time，I am alone，walkman is my only companion for the sleepless but sleepy，lonely but crowded night.Twenty hours to go，fifteen hours to go，thirteen hours to go...，no matter how you dispose yourself，you still cannot feel any better.The train is dashing forward，but I feel as if it were merely dragging.It is now darker outside the window with scattered lights sweeping backward，yet my mind can hardly enjoy the spacious night scene.In the wobbling and suffocating carriage，I become naively conscious，for the first time，of the great amount of valuable time people spend on sleep!

It is now midnight.I notice，in sheer boredom，that the girl who formerly sat near the window to the left of the aisle is now asleep cozily，occupying the whole seat—the boy beside her is no longer there，the boy must have gotten off the train and is on his way home or is home already，I guess.I close my eyes in order to doze.Before long，a sudden stop of the train gains my full attention.To rid myself of sleepiness，I decide to wash my face at the end of the carriage.I pick my way to the water tap so I don't step on the foot of anyone sitting on the carriage floor.When if finally get to the water tap，I see a boy crouching in the corner of the carriage with a book in his hand.It is darker and colder here.What a diligent boy!To let me pass，he withdraws his legs and raises his head.It is a familiar face!He hasn't left the train at all.I shoot another careful look at him.I am not mistaken.IT IS HIM!Back to my seat，looking at the girl who is now sounder asleep，I find it harder to remain peaceful-minded!

Dawn breaks.The train is approaching Tianjin now.The boy is moving to the girl，bringing a hot bowl of noodles before she is up.The girl insists that the boy should have the noodles.Finally they sit shoulder to shoulder and share the noodles.Not until then do I realize that I have turned myself into an observant detective!Outside the carriage，the silhouettes of villages，trees，and chimneys can now be seen.I put on my ear-phones.I cannot tell whether I am lost in my favorite music or in profound thought.

Being a young girl，I will never forget what I witnessed in my homeward trip.The common but thought-provoking scene has brought home to me something previously vague，sincerity and considerateness mean far more than lip-service.

(Adapted from白清，1996，《科技英语学习》第六期p.20)

The purpose：_____________________________________________________________________________________________

The topic sentence：_______________________________________________________________

A top sentence includes the writer's topic andthe writer's view of the topic.In the topic sentence of a narrative paragraph，the topic is the event to be narrated.The view is how the writer feels about the event.Here：

The topic：

The view：_________________________________________________________________

The details are：________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The structure：_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The point of view：______________________________________________________________________

2)Fill in the blanks with proper pronouns：(5 minutes)

Dr.Albert Einstein was one of the greatest scientists of all time，but_______response to life was simple and direct.Once when________was out in a very hard rain，

______took off_______hat and put_____under______coat.When________was

asked why________had done_________，_______simply replied that the rain would damage_______but_______couldn't hurt_______hair.

Keys：(his，he，he，his，it，his，he，he，that，he，his，it，his)

3)Fill in each of the blanks with one of the underlined words in the paragraph：(5 minutes)

My first visit to the cinema was a very unhappy one.I was taken there by somefriendswhen I was only seven years old.At first there were brightlightsand music and I felt quite happy.When the_______went out，I felt afraid.Then thefilmstarted and I saw atrain on the screen.The_______was coming towards me.I shouted out in fear and got down under myseat.When my_______saw me，they started to laugh.I felt ashamed and sat back in my_______.I watched the_______to the end but I still felt afraid.I was glad when the_______ended.

Keys：(lights，train，friends，seat，film，film)

4)Choose proper transitional expressions from the list given below to fill in the blanks in the following paragraph.(8 minutes)

(but，instead，first，second，third，fourth，finally，consequently，in contrast)

European universities and universities in the U.S.A.are different in many ways._______，European students enroll in fewer courses each term than United States students do._______，European students seldom live at a university._______，they live at home and travel to classes._______，most European courses are given by professors who lecture to their classes._______，United States professors often ask their students questions or allow their students to form discussion groups._______，European professors ask students to write fewer papers than United States professors do._______，European students'final examinations are usually oral，whereas American students take written final examinations._______，a European university is mainly a place to study.at most United States universities，social activities take up a large part of the students'time.

Keys：(First，Second，Instead，Third，In contrast，Fourth，Consequently，Finally，But)

5)Writing Assignment

For your narrative paragraph，you have a choice of topics：

(1)Tell a story about a first experience.

(2)Narrate a childhood memory.

(3)Tell a story about a time when you were angry.(4)Narrate an event that changed your thinking.

(5)Tell a story about a time when you were disappointed.

(6)Tell a story about a time when you were pleasantly surprised.

(7)Tell the story of an embarrassing moment.

空间顺序即用表示空间距离和空间方位的过渡词语对所写的对象进行描述。它通常用于对人、物体、场景、地方等的描写。

(1)写作模版

My dormitory room，on the second floor of Yuyuan Hall，is small and crowded.The dark green walls and dirty white ceiling make the room seem dark，and thus even smaller than it is.As you walk into the room，you're stopped short by my bed，which fills half of the room.The two large windowsover the bedare hidden by heavy dark gold drapes.Against the wall on your left，pushed into a cornerbehind the head of the bed，is a large bookcase that is crammed with papers，books and knickknacks.Wedged inbetween the bookcase and the wall opposite thebedis a small gray metal desk.It has a brown wooden chair that seems to fill the left end of the room.Stuffed under the deskis a woven debris.The wallabove the bookcase anddeskis completely taken up with two small posters.On the right hand side of the roomis a narrow closet with clothes，shoes，hats，tennis racquets，and boxes bulging out of its sliding doors.Every time，I walk out of the door，I think，“Now I know what it is like to live in a closet.”

(2)主题句

不管是对人物还是场景、地点的描写，主题句应交待具体的描写对象，同时点明描写的目的。比如上文的描写旨在突出宿舍的狭小、拥挤。

EG1.No visitor to Britain should go home without spending some time in Stratfordupon-Avon.Situated in the heart of England，it is a town rich both in history and in culture.

EG2.My friend John is lucky to have got a good girlfriend whose name is Marie.She，besides fine quality，is born with a beautiful appearance.

(3)空间顺序的安排

空间顺序描写法是描写文中常用的方法。使用这种写作方法一定要注意参照物要清楚；并且，所要描述的内容安排逻辑顺序应该严密，一定要遵照一定的方位顺序有条不紊地展开。可以按从左到右、从上至下、从前到后、从中间向四周的顺序来描写。比如说站在一个固定的位置环顾房屋四周，从上到下打量一个物体、由远及近描写一处风景，甚至可以先写最突出的某个特征，再由此展开。

EG3.　　　　　　　　　　An Early Motor Car

Benz's first car is nowin a museum in Munich.It has one seat and three wheels.There is one small wheelat the frontand two large wheelsbehind the driver'sseat.The wheels are made of wood andare surrounded bysolid rubber tires.The chassis is very light and is made of steel tubes.Between the two back wheelsthere is a heavy metal flywheel.To the right of theflywheelthere is a pulley.A leather beltpasses from the pulley to a shaft.The shaft islocated under the driver's seat.Metal chainsconnect the shaft to the back wheels.

EG4.

Kevin Carter，the photographer won the 1994's Pulitzer Prize for having successful displayed the poor life in Africa.This was his biggest hit.

A Photograph

With only one child and one bird focused，this black and white photograph may not be so eye-catching as to show the thesis“poverty and despair”.

If you get closer，you will see a naked small black child with a comparatively big head squatting on the ground.His forehead，which is buried in his hands，almost touches the ground.He seems to be praying.Behindhim，stands a large bird gazing at the child and clearly waiting for something.

In the background，there are several scattered huts among the trees，which shows a typically tropical land.What are striking toyour eyes arewithered grass and broken twigs here and there.The child is as skinny as a skeleton.Now you will have no problems to work out that this is a scene in Africa，a land with a burning sun and not enough food.

Below the photo，there are explanatory notes，which says：“a hungry Sudanese child on the way to the food center in Ayod and a waiting vulture”.The words may remind you of the knowledge from the biology textbooks that a vulture is a kind of bird that feeds on dead animals.

Now，if you look at the photo again，there are still only one child and one bird in it.But this time，you may get the point.Both of them are seeking food；it seems that the vulture will get its food quicker because the boy is obviously going to die soon.

Kevin Carter，the photographer won the 1994's Pulitzer Prize for having successful displayed the poor life in Africa.This was his biggest hit.

EG5.After a breathless rush to the station，I found my train crammed like sardines.As the train started to move，I looked around from my seat.Overheadhung small bags and net，swinging from side to side along with the staggering and panting of the over-loaded train.The light was dim，coated with the smoke of cigarettes.The air was full of the smells of oil，sweat，moldy cake，socks，and toilets.It was darkoutsidethe window.The folded window curtains seemed to have been picked up from a garbage can.Black and yellow stains dotted them.From time to time，wet and greasy hands might have been rubbed on them.The wooden edge of the window was peeled，encrusted with soot，and was greasy like a butcher's counter.Brown and dry apple cores，bread crust，and melon seeds mixed with spilled beer were sc

atteredon the small tablein front of me，so was a crumpled newspaper soaked in chili oil beside one used chopstick.I looked down on the floorand saw nothing but legs，backs，and buttocks in black or blue.Legs straddled，or stretched from this side of the aisle to the other.Someone even lay under the seat，leaving two feet out.Going to the toilet became a disaster.There was almost no space to step on.Even the most splendid imitation of a ballerina on tiptoe might cause stumbling and complaints.

除了静态的描写外，同样可以采用动态描写法。可以边走边看，从某一点起，以A为参照点讲B，再以B为参照点讲C，依次类推。这样的描写可以使读者有身临其境的感觉。

EG6.　　　　　　The Next-door

Every time，when I pass the dormitory of my next door，I can see some of them playing PC games happily，some enjoying their meals，and the rest are sleeping or laying cards.And they never open their windows or door.Everything looks ordinary.

Once upon a time，I pushed the door.I felt something wormed in my nose，broke into my lung.Then I know the true meaning of headache.I couldn't breathe.My heart beat hard.It wasn't hot，but I was sweating.It was a fishy and sour smell.

“May I use your restroom?”I askedand walked into the room.The floor was carpeted with dirty socks and shorts.Their pillow were pitchy and shiny.Quilts were all yellow.You can pick up a book every where，even in the sink.The tile was black and shabby，so I didn't dare to touch it.

As I entered the toilet，I finally understood that why so many people preferred to kill themselves.I couldn't open my eyes because of the smell from the urinal.But I knew every where was yellow.I ran out immediately without doing anything.

EG7.　　　　　　Campus Life

The garden on our campus alive with green woods and colorful flowers is an attractive place.Nearby a statue in the garden stands a girl in a beautiful white dress.She is absorbed in an interesting book.Not far from her a boy sits on a bench holding a radio set，his eyes sparkling with interest.Along the road to the park，several students are heard reading English.Beside the road，two youths are playing badminton happy and gay.Groups of boys and girls can be seen walking down the road towards the campus entrance.

(4)空间顺序描写的语言

A.词语和句型

above

under

beneath

over

below

beyond

nearby

further

down

around

opposite

eastwards

westward

southwards

northwards

across from

adjacent to

before me

near to

next to

at the front

across the street

along the road

on the top of

on the left

on the right

on one's left

on one's right

in the distance

down by the river

in the center

in the eastern/western part of

in the suburbs

in the countryside

on the outskirts

B.参考例句

①The chemist is right to opposite the cinema.

药房就正对着电影院。

②The cinema is right next to the bank and quite near the Oriental Hotel.

电影院就在银行的右边，并且离东方酒店很近。

③The library is on the corner of the Ren Min Road.

图书馆位于人民路的拐弯处。

④The Railway station is situated to the southeast of the lake.

火车站位于湖的东南面。

⑤On the north lie the great plains.

北面是大平原。

⑥On one side，sits a tiny meadow that extends to the wall.

在一边是很小的芳草地，它一直延伸到那堵墙。

⑦In front of me is the big red barns surrounded by rolling pastures.

在我面前是连绵起伏的草原所环绕的大红粮仓。

⑧Everything as far as the eye can see radiates a sense of prosperity.

印入眼帘的一切都显露出一片繁荣景象。

⑨A beautiful arrangement of fresh flowers sat in the very center of the table.

在桌子中央摆放着美丽的鲜花。

(5)练习

1)Before we begin to describe a place，whether it is large or small，we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details.For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.It would only confuse the reader to mention them in a haphazard way.Read the following two paragraphs and answer questions：

In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees，all of which are in full bloom.A little girl was hopping among them，now gazing at a bud，now collecting fallen petals.Under one of the trees stood her parents，who，while keeping an eye on her，were examining the milk white blossoms with great interest and admiration.In front of another tree，a young couple，fresh and bright as the flowers，were posing for a picture.At one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb，which looked so charming and real that a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flower.At the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.

Here the writer starts from___________________________________.Then he describes___________________________________，and after that___________________________________.In short，the description moves from__________________________________.

Keys：

Here the writer starts fromthe trees in the middle of the courtyard，or the center ofthe scene.Then he describesthe people under and around the trees，and after thatthepeople farther from the trees at both ends of the courtyard.In short，the description moves fromthe center to the surrounding areas.

The following expressions are often used in describing special relations：

where，in which，to which，from which，etc.

under，over，inside，beside，on the top of，etc.

along，through，as far as，etc.

to the left，to the right，to the north/south/east/west，etc.

at the back/end，in front，in the middle，etc.

2)Writing assignment

Choose from one of the following topics and write an essay.

(1)My Room

(2)My Dorm

(3)My Favorite Bookshelf

(4)My Alarm Clock

(5)The Library in Our University

过程说明主要用于概述事物产生和发展的过程、方法、步骤等。过程说明可分为三种。第一种是自然过程(natural process)，指的是某一自然现象的产生过程，如How it rains，How the human heart works；第二种是人为过程(artificial process)即非自然事物产生、发展的过程，如The process of man-made rain，The process of manufacturing metal alloys，Making butter in the kitchen；第三种系实践过程(experimental process)，也就是从实践中获悉某事态、某事物的发展过程，如How to apply for a job，How to get along with colleagues，How to read better and faster.

(1)写作模板

Five-Step Writing Process

Writing in the college classroom usually puts specific demands on students.Instructions often assign limited subjects，require a specified number of words，and sometimes even dictate form.However，anyone can master the skills to succeed in socalled“classroom writing”byfollowing a five-step process：generating ideas，organizing those ideas writing，revising，and finally editing for mechanical correctness.

When you are given a writing assignment，begin by listing your ideas and experiences about the assigned or selected subject.This step is probably the most important one in the writing processbecause it is the one that gives your writing substance.

Scan your list and decide what subject your ideas suggest.State this subject in a word or a phrase，and eliminate those ideas on your list that are not related to your stated subject.Organize your remaining ideas to support the subject.This step is also avery important onebecause a good paper has a purpose that the reader can easily identify.When you decide on your subject and determine your organization，you are deciding on your purpose.In other words，you are deciding what you wish to say.

Your third step is towrite your paper.While you are writing，you may think of ideas to add to your list.As you are writing，scratch out and make as many changes as you like.Your fourth step is torevise your paper.Think about what you wish to communicate，read over your material，and make any changes in wording or sentence structure that will make your ideas clearer.You may even wish to add details，delete details，or rearrange details at this stage.

Finally，you need to edit your paper for paper for mechanical correctness.Proof-read it carefully for standard usage and correct spelling.

You have now practiced the writing process.Each time you do a writing assignment，repeat the five steps of the process.The purpose is to guide you step by step from the prewriting step to the composing steps and finally to the proofreading and editing step.

范文的写作基本思想是：

A.Introduction：Anyone can succeed in classroom writing by following a five-step writing process.

B.Steps of Writing

　a.List ideas and experiences

　b.Organize ideas

　c.Writing your paper

　d.Revise your paper e.Proof-read and correct your paper

C.Conclusion

(2)过程说明的角度

A.指导性的过程说明

指导性的过程说明侧重于“how to do something”(怎样做某事)，向读者提供方法、给予具体指导。比如下面的“Cleaning a Paint Brush”一文就是指导读者怎样去洗净油漆刷子的：

Cleaning a Paint Brush

Cleaning a paint brush can be easy if you follow the correct procedure.After you finish using the brush remove excess paint with a scraper.Then soak the brush in a can of paint thinner，working it back and forth against the bottom of the container so that the thinner soaks through.Next，squeeze the bristles between your thumb and forefinger to loosen the paint in the center of the brush.Rinse it again in the thinner to make sure that all the paint has been removed.After rinsing thoroughly，press out the water with a stick，and then comb the bristles carefully with a wire comb.Allow the brush to dry by suspending it from the handle or by laying it flat on a clean，flat surface.Finally，wrap the dry bush in heavy paper to keep the bristles straight and store suspended by its handle.If you follow this simple procedure，your bush will be clean and ready to use when you need it again.

B.知识性的过程说明

知识性的过程说明重点在于“how something is done”(某事是怎样做的)，主要向读者介绍知识和信息。比如下面的“How a Geyser Erupts”一文向读者介绍了美国黄石公园一个喷泉喷水的过程：

How a Geyser Erupts

As we stood watching the plume of steam and the burst of boiling water rising more than 120 feet above Old Faithful，our Yellowstone guide explained how a geyser erupts.The process begins as rainwater filters down through the soil of Yellowstone.After a while the water is heated to a temperature over 500 degrees by the rocks deep in the earth，but it is unable to boil because the surrounding pressure created by the weight of the water above it is too great.Then，the superheated water slowly begins to rise to the surface through the narrow cracks in the rocks.It is pushed upward by the new rainwater that is percolating downward.Soon the water begins to boil because the pressure of the atmosphere at the surface is lower than the pressure deep in the ground.Presently steam forms：at first in tiny bubbles and after a while in large pockets that push the surrounding water up and expel it in plumes and bursts from the mouth of the geyser.At this time a chain reaction begins.The water below the surface，relieved of its weight by the lowered boiling point，splashes out.As a result，the pressure continues to decrease，permitting the boiling point to drop at greater depths and more pockets of steam to form and shoot up.This reaction continues for about four minutes.When Old Faithful is reloaded about sixty-five minutes later，the process repeats itself step by step as it has been doing for thousands of years.

(3)写作的基本要领

A.确定主题，写好主题句

写好过程说明文的关键是明确主题。确立了主题思想，全文才能围绕中心深入展开。主题句是反映中心思想的句子，因此，首先必须写好主题句。主题句必须写得正确、集中、鲜明，比如下面的主题句就具备了这些特点：

1)Preparing for a hiking trip can be almost as much fun as the trip itself.

2)Making a follow-up investigation is a more complicated operation than you might think.

3)You have to be very careful when you are charging a battery with jumper cables.

4)Arranging flowers is a difficult but satisfying art.

5)Coffee-growing is a long job that does not all come out as you imagine.

6)To bring a skidding car back under control，you have to know how to use three different ways of controlling the movement of your car.

B.目的明确，中心突出

写过程说明文要避免简单地罗列“怎样做”的步骤，而应该明确交待目的，这样才能抓住重点，选准角度，突出中心。如下文在开头就清楚地说明了为什么要采用自然方法自制面包：

The Natural Way to Bake Bread

Much of the bread we see on supermarket shelves is filled with preservatives so that it can stay on the shelves longer without spoiling.Mush of it has an unnatural leached appearance.It often has the consistency and the taste of a sponge.To reduce the amount of dubious chemicals in our diet，we can learn to bake our own bread from natural ingredients....

C.连贯完整，言而有序

过程说明文的一个突出特点是最讲求言而有序。应该按事物发展的自然顺序，分阶段和步骤，并用表示顺序的过渡词语将要说明的过程阐释清楚。比如，汽油生产过程的自然顺序应按下列五个步骤说明：

The Production of Gasoline

The first step：Heat the crude oil.

The next step：Cool the vapor thus produced into a liquid.

The third step：Further refine the liquid into several fractions.

The fourth step：Blend several of these fractions.

The final step：Add chemical to produce the various grades sole at the pump.

D.提出建议或劝告

进行过程说明时，往往需要提出建议或劝告，便于读者加深理解。如在谈论How to Read Better and Faster时，就要清楚阐述提高阅读理解能力的步骤，给出大量的建议。这样，不仅能使读者深刻领悟怎样读得又快又好，而且还能使他们领悟为什么能读得又快又好。

E.必要时对术语进行解释

在指令性过程说明中尤其应当如此。读者如果对术语缺乏理解，很难读懂操作指令，比如在介绍考驾照的程序时，就有必要对不同类型的驾照进行解释：

When you are filling out the form，check the box that says“Class A.”A Class A license is for those who want to drive automobiles—not trucks or motorcycles.

(4)过程说明性段落的语言

A.词语和句型

through通过，经由

by means of用……方法

through the use of通过使用……

with the help of借助于

The first step/stage is...第一个步骤(阶段)是……

The following step/stage is...下一个步骤(阶段)是……

The subsequent step/stage is...下一个步骤(阶段)是……

The next step/stage is...下一个步骤(阶段)是……

The last step/stage is...最后一个步骤(阶段)是……

The final step/stage is...最后一个步骤(阶段)是……

In the first step/stage...在第一个步骤(阶段)里……

In the following step/stage...在下一个步骤(阶段)里……

In the subsequent step/stage...在下一个步骤(阶段)里……

In the next step/stage...在下一个步骤(阶段)里……

In the last step/stage...在最后一个步骤(阶段)里……

begin with以……开始

commence with以……开始

finish with以……结束

conclude with以……结束

B.参考例句

①Performing a winter checkup on your car can be done easily if you follow the proper procedure.The first step is...

如果你按照正确地程序进行，便会很容易地对你的汽车做冬季检修。第一步是……

②Cleaning a paint brush can be easy if you follow the correct procedure.

如果遵循正确的程序，就能很容易地洗净油漆刷子。

③Learning to type letters on a word processor is a simple task.It begins with...

学习用文字处理机打字是件很容易的事，首先开始……

④There are three separate stages in making bread.

加工面包有三道工序。

⑤The purification of water is basically a two-step or three-step process carried out under the strict supervision of public health scientists and engineers.

水净化过程基本包含两个或三个步骤，并且在公共卫生科学家和工程师的严格监督下进行。

⑥The fist stage in the process of industrialization for most countries is the discovery of new sources of raw materials and fuel.

对于大部分的国家来说，工业化过程的第一阶段是发现新的原料和燃料源。

⑦The first stage begins by mixing yeast with warm water.

第一阶段首先开始把酵母用温水调和。

⑧The whole process finishes when the bread is taken from the oven and left to cool on wire racks.

当面包出炉并在金属架上冷却下来时，整个制作过程完毕。

⑨The process of melting consists of heating the ore in a blast furnace with coke and limestone，and reducing it to metal.

熔化的过程包括在鼓风机中用焦碳和石灰石对矿物进行加热，直到将矿石冶炼成金属。

⑩Before they go any further with their organization，they decide what will determine the topic sentence.

在组织文章之前，首先应确定其主题句。

With the steps completed，they have a unified paragraph in time sequence.

在完成这些步骤之后，一个按时间顺序组织的、前后一致的段落便写成了。

(5)练习

1)When you have to explain how something is done，you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description.As the steps must occur one after another，the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.In giving instructions imperative sentences and sentences with the indefinite pronoun you as the subject are often used.The present tense should be used if the instructions are still applicable.Read the following paragraphs and answer questions：

To make a recording of a radio program on a blank tape，first，tune in the proper band and make sure that the sound is OK.Then，insert a blank tape into the cassette of the recorder and close its cover.Next，push down both“PLAY”key and“REC”key at the same time.Now the tape will start winding.Finally，when the program comes to an end，press the“STOP”key to finish the recording.By this time，the tape is ready for playback.

a.This paragraph briefly describes_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ b.The sequence of the steps is clearly indicated by____________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Keys：

a.the process of how to make a recording of a radio program on a blank tape by using atypical tape recorder.

b.first，then，next，finally，by this time.

2)Writing assignment

Write an essay with one of the topic listed below

(1)How to Make Dumplings

(2)The Successful Application to Study Abroad

(3)How to Prepare for an Interview

(4)My Way of Remembering English Vocabulary