第四节 Because与For异同比较
关于because与for的用法与意义,中外学者已作了不少论述。本节从信息的角度,就它们的语义、使用范围、连接功能等方面的异同进行了比较分析与探讨。
一、语义
1.表示原因(cause)
Because引导的分句表示导致主句动作或情状产生的自然的、直接的、真正的原因。主句与分句之间有必然的因果关系,故通常译为“因为”、“(之所以……)原因是”等意义。如:
①The day breaks because the sun is rising.
②The river has risen,because it has rained much of late.
对for表示直接原因的用法,有学者持有异议。钱歌川先生就说过,for并不成其原因,只是一种理由而已。但Cuarme曾告诫过人们:“不能随便得出结论说for不表示原因。”通过很多例证表明,for有时也可表示直接原因。它所引述的分句表示前一分句内容的直接原因(即为某一事实说明原因)时,前后两个分句含有一种紧密的、必然的因果关系,一般也可译为“因为”等。其用法与because不尽相同,但可以交替使用。请看例证:
③She was not helpless for(because)she had money of her own.
④She was angry,for(because)she didn't know now French.
⑤I must be off now,for(because)my sister is expecting me.
上述例证表明,for连接的分句所表示因果关系的表现方法同样是据果索因,即前一分句表示结果,后一分句表示原因。因此,例⑤可释义为:My sister is expecting me,(and)so I must be off now.
2.表示理由(reason)
Because分句在表示理由时同表示原因一样,与主句有因果关系,并且可以直接回答why起首的提问。表示原因的because分句侧重于直接陈述这个原因,而表示理由的because分句则侧重于推测与判断主句的行为或情状,即主句所传达的信息。故可译为“因为”、“由于”,当然也可不译,如:
⑥He must have passed this way,because there is no other road.
⑦He could not have seen me,because I was not there.
For分句表示的理由说明前一分句的内容或在逻辑上对前一分句进行推理,常常是陈述过某种情况后,再过渡到陈述另一种情况,后一种情况可能是说话人补充的“原因”,也可能是他追加的“理由”,前后分句中蕴含着一定的因果关系,同样可用原因意义词来译,也可不译出。如:
⑧The old lady doesn't go out in the Winter,for she feels the cold a great deal.
⑨He took the food eagerly,for he had had nothing since dawn.
3.表示依据(Basis)
Because分句还可以为主句提供依据。说话人使用这一意义的because分句是为了证明自己并非空口无凭,而是言之有据。这种用法见于正式文体。例如:
⑩He's drunk,because I saw him staggering.
She paid for the book,because I saw her.
有学者认为,这类because分句与主句之间隐含着表示讲话的动词和主语I,属语体外加语(style disjuncts)。如果because分句之前隐含的依据语项补充出来,应为:and I know it,and I am sure of it,and I am convinced of it,and the proof is(that),and I claim it/that等,故例⑩可释义为:He's drunk,and I claim this because I saw him.由于这类because分句与主句之间含着“解释”或“推论”语项,两者之间没有因果关系,因此一般不直接用原因概念词来翻译,例⑩可译为:他喝醉了,(我这么说的根据是)我看见他走路摇摇晃晃的。例译文为:那本书她付了款的,(我之所以这么说是因为)我看见她付的。
For分句表示依据时通常是为前一分句所表达的内容提供解释或判断,其目的在于增加所言之事的可信度或正确性。所谓判断性,即前一句往往是表示一种推测,因此谓语动词常含有情态动词must;后一分句并不产生前一分句内容的直接原因,而仅是对前一分句补充说明理由或推断原因。例如:
It must be very late,for the street are quite deserted.
It must have rained last night,for the ground is wet this morning.
例中for分句并不是为“天已很晚”这一事实说明原因,而是为说话人为何作此推断提供理由;我之所以作此推断,是因为街上已经没有行人了,相当于:It must be very late,and I claim it for the street are quite deserted.
所谓解释性,即for分句用来对前一分句中的事实或看法作解释,比如:
They apparently have a good drainage system,for the street never seem to flood after a downpour.
It is morning for the birds are singing.
很多人认为,当for分句对前一分句的内容加以解释或推断,for就不能为because所替代。但是,在现代英语中由于for与because在使用时的区别越来越小,而for又很少用于口语中,所以有的中外学者认为,就是在这类用法中,for也可改为because。其典型的例证有:
They've lit fire,for/because I can see the smoke rising.(GCE)=They've lit a fire,and I claim that for/because I can see the smoke rising.
二、使用范围与信息
1.Because比for常用
章振邦教授在《新编英语语法教程》学生用书中指出,for与because的用法基本相同,只是because比for语势较强。在当代英语中,凡是for与because可互换的场合,常以用because为多,因为for分句常见于正式语体,在非正式语体中(尤其是口语中)for分句往往带有书卷气。
2.Because比for具有强调性
尽管because与for可交替使用,但because通常具有新信息(New information)性质。从句表示的原因一般是发话者认为受话者不知道的内容。因此,在很多情况下,because与for均不能交替使用。
回答why起首的问句只能用because不可用for。例如,下述例的对话中,B中的because分句传递的是新信息,它是语义重点所在,因而占据了语义中心的位置。因此,例也是合理的:
A1:Why did you come so late?
B1:I came late because I was held up by bad weather.
A2:Why did you come so late?
B2:Because I was held up by bad weather.
用作分裂句(cleft sentence)中的中心成分(focus element)时,只能用because。例如:
It is because he sat up all night with the patient that the doctor looks tired and sleepy.
Because前可用only,just,chiefly,simply,mainly,partly等强调性修饰语和否定词not以及具有强调意义并列连词not...but,either...or,而for前则不可以。例如:
She didn't want to go to Africa,probably because the weather is too hot.
Don't do anything simply because other people are doing it.
I'm going on a trip tomorrow,because I have to,not because I want to.
用作疑问句的中心词或引导表语分句时,只能用because。比如:
Do you despise him because he is poor?
The reason for the boy to behave like that is because he was spoiled by his parents.
上述分析表明,because的使用范围比for广。但是,当because分句表示依据时,尤其是以主语的内容提供解释或判断时,这类分句与for分句一样既不能用以回答why的问句,也不能在because之前用强调性的修饰语和否定词not以及具有强调意义的并列连词。其原因在于这类because分句是为主句提供依据或对主句内容加以解释或推断,属一种附加信息(extra information),处于次要信息地位。
三、位置比较
Because连接的复合句所表示的因果关系,可以是“据因索果”,也可以是“由因推果”。所以它引导的分句在前后均可。例如:
Because I had something to tell him,I went to see him.(or:I went to see him,because I had something to tell him.)
For分句只能后置不能前放,因为for所连接的两个分句只能是一种顺序排列。例中的because若换成for,只能是:I went to see him,for I had something to tell him.决不可写成:For I had something to tell him,I went to see him.
表示原因的for单独成句时可以置于句首,但这并不意味着它所引导的原因句在前,结果句跟其之后;而是把for所引导的全句跟前文相接,表示所说内容是前文的原因,从而与上文构成逻辑意义上的因果关系。For的这类用法属于正式语体,通常出现在文学体裁中。because分句,除了省略句或回答Why问句外,通常不能以独立句形式单独出现。例如
The men's and the women's shops are indistinguishable from each other.For the girls'shop windows display masculine shirts,while the men's windows are full of scarlet mini-underpants.(G.C.E)
The vast majority of the competitions will be well content just to walk round at their own pace,stopping for rest or refreshment as required,and finishing in good order.For it's a long day's by anybody's standards,and there is much to be said for enjoying scenery at the same time.(G.C.E)
When I saw her in the river,I was frightened.For at that point the currents were dangerous.
For有时还可以引起一个原因分句,作为一个插入分句(parenthetic clause)插入句中。而because分句则不可以,例如:
Tom bought a chain,one of silver gilt,certainly,for he had not the money for gold one,but of very pretty workmanship.
Under the Party's guidance,for his mother was a widow,he received a good education.
四、从属连词与准并列连词
众所周知,because是一个从属连词(subordinator)引导的是一个从属分句(subordinate clause)。对for来说,中外学者持有不同意见。多数语法家认为for是并列连词(coordinator),少数人认为是从属连词,还有一些语法学家认为for是介于两者之间。Quirk等在A Grammar of Contemporary English中认为for是从属连词。张道真先生在《A New English Grammar(1983)》与A New English Grammar(修订本,1989)中将for作为并列连词处理并也提出了它介于从属连词与并列连词之间的观点,但在《新编英语语法教程》(第二版,1995)中,他们又将for作为从属连词。For与because的语义基本相同,从而接近于从属连词。For具有并列连词特征主要表现在以下几个方面:
1.For单独成句时能像并列连词and,but一样引导一个独立分句,为上文陈述的情况说明原因或提供理由
比如:上述例。又如:
Ship companies sent out agents to try to get people to emigrate paying a“bounty”or commission on each passenger the agents brought in.For the greedy ship owners saw a chance to make a handsome profit out of carrying the immigrants.
2.正因为for具有并列连词的某些特征,所以当它连接两个分句时,按照正式书写规定通常要在for分句之前用逗号隔开,有时甚至还可以用冒号或破折号
We must start early:for we have a long way to go.(LDCE)
I decided to stop and have lunch—for I was feeling quite hungry.(Swan)
3.For像其他并列连词一样,其前不可用其他并列连词连接。由于because是从属连词,所以它前可用并列连词and,not...but,either...or连接
例如:
He wouldn't do it and(all)because I didn't ask him in person.(GCE)
He didn't attend the meeting,not because he thought it was unimportant,but because he had too much work to do.
Some people can dress in forty minutes,others will take an hour and a half,either because they have not adopted the invariable order or because they hesitate before decisions...
上述论证证明,for是介于从属连词与并列连词之间的一种连接词。Quirk等人在A Grammar of Contemporary English中提出了如下六条判断标准,进一步论证了for接近于这两者之间:
1)固定在它的分句之前;
2)以它开头的分句固定在它有关的前一分句之后,因此不可移到这个分句之前的位置上面。它的前面不允许有连词;
3)如果分句的主语与前一个相连接的分句的主语互参,那么这个分句的主语就可以省略;
4)它可以连接从属分句;
5)它可以连接两个以上的分句。
在这种情况下,只需保留最后一个连接项,其他都能省略。通过检测发现,for只符合前三条标准,而不符合后三条标准。因此,传统上不把for包括在并列连词内的分法是有道理的;然而for又不可连接两个分句,同样有足够的理由把它包括在并列连词一类中。因此,给for定义为“准并列连词(quasi-coordinator)”比较恰当。
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