法律文本的词汇特点

第十二章　法律文本的翻译

第一节　 法律文本的词汇特点

法律文本是一种有特殊效力的文本，总体包括两方面内容：一是具有普遍约束力的规范性法律文件，具体指各种法律、行政法规、地方性法规及规章等；二是不具有普遍约束力的非规范性法律文件，即狭义的法律文书，是指国家司法机关、律师及律师事务所、仲裁机关、公证机关和案件当事人依法制作的处理种类诉讼案件以及非诉讼案件的具有法律效力或法律意义的非规范性文件的总称。

专用于法律文本的语言称为法律语言，它具有权威性、庄严性、程式性、实效性、强制性，精确性等特点，因而要求用词准确、行文正式、因循守制、句式冗长等等。总之，法律语言既有一般语言的特色，又在用词遣句方面有其独到之处。

英语法律文本的复杂性和严谨性首先表现在词汇方面。英语法律文本的词汇主要有以下六大特点：1.具独到含义的普通词汇；2.词源多样化；3.法律行话；4.赘言赘语；5.模糊词语；6.规约性情态动词；9.名词化结构。

1.具独到含义的普通词汇

日常生活中的很多常见词汇放在法律环境中，词意便发生了变化。对此不够熟悉的读者或译者很容易犯想当然的错误，从而误解原文含义。

类似的例子还有很多。这些词语虽然出现在法律文本中，但并不仅限于法律用词，很多是金融、经贸类术语，因此翻译法律文本时一定要注意查证，尤其是在文本读来不够通顺之处，更是要着力考查此词是否是一词多义的，并通过上下文弄懂该词的意思。

2.词源多样化

英语本身是开放性的语言，很多词语来源于其他语种，法律英语中也不例外，此外，由于现代法律与古代法典的传承关系，部分古代词语也沿习至今，这使得法律英语的词源呈多样化趋势。大致说来，法律英语多来自三种词源：古英语与中世纪英语、拉丁语与法语。

古英语词语与古汉语一样，庄重、准确，用在法律文本中可以使其显得更为正式，也更有助于显示法律的神圣性和权威性。尽管说目前英美国家提倡法律人士在起草法律文件时尽量少用或者避免使用此类词语，但是适当的使用古英语和中世纪英语词汇是有必要的。这些词语中最有代表性的是there, here, where等词与by, in, of, to, under, after等构成的副词。（参见第十一章）

其次是拉丁语，该语言在英语的发展和演变过程中一直占有特殊的地位，在法律英语中则更显权威。拉丁语在西方历史上长期被视为“有教养者使用的语言”，也曾经是欧洲人著述法律规则和法律命题的“通用语言”。此外，罗马曾对不列颠进行为期三百多年的统治，因此英国法深受罗马法影响，英国法律中从而也吸收了很多拉丁语的词汇。常见的有：

法律英语中还有大量来源于法语的单词，如attorney, court, judge, summons (传票), verdict等等。这主要有两个原因。其一，诺曼征服后，法语在英国境内成为了统治语言，14世纪法语成为英国法律的通用语言，并一直使用至15世纪末期；其二，相较英语而言，法语词语的意义比较单一，不容易产生歧义，因此使用该种词汇使得行文更加严谨，为法律人员广泛使用。尽管后来法语不再是英国法定的语言，但是很多法语中的法律词汇仍保留下来，并沿用至今。

3.法律行话

社会上的一些集团、群体，由于工作上、活动上或其他目的上的共同性，在相互之间交往交流时，会创造、使用一些不同于其他社会群体的词汇、用语或符号，这就是行话。在法律界也是如此。尤其是在法庭辩词等行内法律文书中，行话会大量使用。这些行话一方面使得法律界人士交流顺畅，效率提高，另一方面也可以增加大众对法律的敬畏。

常见的法律行话有：

4.赘言赘语

法律英语中的累赘词是指连用两个或三个彼此互为同义词或近义词的词语，从而加强语气并澄清概念。在翻译中要特别小心甄别这类词汇以保证译文的精确性，因为这类词汇中有些用词的意义并不完全相同。

续表

5.模糊词语

虽然法律语言要求表达准确，但是这与法律文本中的模糊词语并不矛盾。模糊与含混是不同的概念。模糊是一种修辞手段，模糊语言的运用可以增强表述的全面性，从而提高法律的使用范围。法律英语中恰当使用模糊，能够给予量刑者一定的余地依照具体情况酌情考量，这是实现立法意图和司法目标不可或缺的手段。

例1：Customs formalities shall be duly completed in accordance with this Law.

译文：应依照本法律规定适当办理海关手续。

说明：此句中的duly一词便是法律中模糊词语的体现，用来表示一种不确定的、随情况变化而变化的情况，但在此等情景下却非常贴切、灵活。

例2：The customs may consult and make copies of contracts, invoices, account books, certificate of foreign exchange settlement and payment, bills, business letters and telegraphs, voice and image recording products, and other materials reflecting the relationship and transaction activities of buyers and sellers in order to examine the authenticity and accuracy of the declared value.

译文：海关为审查申报价格的真实性和准确性，可以查阅、复制与进出口货物有关的合同、发票、账册、结付汇凭证、单据、业务函电、录音录像制品和其他反映买卖双方关系及交易活动的资料。

说明：例2中在列举一系列查阅复制材料后使用了模糊语“其他反映买卖双方关系及交易活动的资料”，适当对此处未能涵盖、但又可能发生的情况留出了余地，此处这种必要的模糊处理使原文更为严谨，法律适用范围更广。

6.归约型情态动词

法律文本大多是对适用对象做出的规约、许可、授权、禁止等。因此英语的法律条文里使用很多规约性的情态动词，如shall, may, can, should, ought to, 等。其中出现频度最高是shall。此处的“shall”并非助动词，而是情态动词，表示强烈的义务关系，比“should”语义更强，用来强调法律强制效力。该词并不局限在第一人称后使用。（参见第十一章）

第二节　 法律文本的句式特点

1.名词化结构

法律文本的一大特点是使用名词性结构代替短句，从而使句子简化，同时这种结构也增强了文本的正式性和严谨性，但是另一方面这些堆砌的词汇所含信息量大且密集，往往会使文本更为晦涩难懂。

例 1：Fees with regard to the construction, installation, assembling, servicing and technical services provided to goods, such as workshops, machinery, equipment etc., after importation;

译文：厂房、机械、设备等货物进口后进行建设、安装、装配、维修和技术服务的费用

分析：文章中使用with regard to…加上一连串名词来代替定语从句，在后文又用介词短语after importation 代替after they are imported, 使句子层次大为简化。名词如construction, installation, assembling, importation 比相应动词construct, install, assemble, import 听来严谨正式，但是此类词语难度比动词大，须仔细辨识，加大了阅读难度，而且该处结构本身修饰关系也很复杂。

2.多为陈述句

法律英语文书的主要功能是明确法律关系，限定法律条文，规定相应人员的权利和义务等，所以法律英语的基本句式通常是陈述句结构。疑问句、感叹句和祈使句在法律文本中十分罕见。

例2：The opening Bank shall actively assist the accounting firm to prudently and, after receiving the bank enquiry letter, verify the relevant data and material, clearly issue its opinion, duly seal its business chop evidencing the legitimate authority and reply within 5 business days after receiving the bank enquiry letter.

译文：开户银行应当积极配合会计师事务所的工作，在收到银行询证函后，认真核对有关数据资料，明确签署意见，加盖对外具有法定证明效力的业务专用章，并在收到询证函之日起5个工作日内回函。

3.多长句

法律英语所述的关系相对来讲非常复杂，立法者总要将某个问题相关的全部情况通盘考虑在内，才能最大限度地避免漏洞，造成对法律的曲解，因此法律文本的逻辑性强，句子颇长，大局嵌套小句，定语后置现象普遍，结构复杂。

例3：Unit price of the said imported goods, same goods or similar goods that are sold to buyers without a special relationship with the seller in the maximum quantity at the first level of sales links, which occurred at the same time or approximately at the same time as the importation of the goods; however, items stipulated in article 22 of this set of regulations shall be deducted.

译文：与该货物进口的同时或者大约同时，将该进口货物、相同或者类似进口货物在第一级销售环节销售给无特殊关系买方最大销售总量的单位价格，但应当扣除本条例第二十二条规定的项目。

例4：Where employers constitute, modify or determine such bylaws or significant matters in direct relation to the real benefits of workers as the remuneration, working time, rest and vacation, work safety and health care, social insurance and welfare, job training, job discipline or quota management, the draft thereof shall be discussed at the workers‟congress or by all the workers, which shall bring forward schemes and opinions.

译文：用人单位在制定、修改或者决定有关劳动报酬、工作时间、休息休假、劳动安全卫生、保险福利、职工培训、劳动纪律以及劳动定额管理等直接涉及劳动者切身利益的规章制度或者重大事项时，应当经职工代表大会或者全体职工讨论，提出方案和意见。

例5：The customs may consult and make copies of contracts, invoices, account books, certificate of foreign exchange settlement and payment, bills, business letters and telegraphs, voice and image recording products, and other materials reflecting the relationship and transaction activities of buyers and sellers in order to examine the authenticity and accuracy of the declared value.

译文：海关为审查申报价格的真实性和准确性，可以查阅、复制与进出口货物有关的合同、发票、账册、结付汇凭证、单据、业务函电、录音录像制品和其他反映买卖双方关系及交易活动的资料。

4.被动语态

法律英语句子中大量地使用被动句，这是因为很多法律条文中有必要清楚表明动作的承受对象，而动作的发出者毋庸置疑是参与事件的一方或多方，因此不需要特别指明。此外，被动语态的使用还体现了法律文书的客观性。

例6：Customs duties of import and export goods may be levied by means of ad valorem, specific duties, or otherwise specified by the State.

译文：进出口货物关税，以从价计征、从量计征或者国家规定的其他方式征收。

例7：After the foreign-invested enterprise is established, the balance of the upfront expenses shall be transferred into the special deposit account of RMB capital funds in accordance with Article 8 of these measures or returned through the original route.

译文：外商投资企业设立后，剩余前期费用应当转入按本办法第八条规定开立的人民币资本金专用存款账户或原路退回。

5.具有独特法律含义的句式

此外，法律英语中在表达特定含义时有很多约定俗成的独特表达句式，如subject to, notwithstanding, to the extent that等等，这些句式在日常生活英语中多已废除不用，它们的出现使法律文本对普通读者来说晦涩深奥，作为译者则要注重对这些结构的理解和掌握，方能在翻译时处理自如。

第三节　 法律文本的翻译

在进行法律文本翻译时，译者的主要任务是力求通过语言转换达到内容和效力的完全相等。换句话说，除了意义上的对等外，在法律翻译中要尽可能保留原文的法律意图，以保证在司法实践中原文与译文能产生相同的应用。

为了确保完成上述任务，译者在翻译过程中需要遵循四条基本原则：1.准确性；2.统一性；3.简练性；4.专业性。

1.准确性

法律必须具有确定性，因此 法律文本翻译对准确性的要求远远高于其他行业。缺乏准确性的译文会导致对政策法规的错误理解和执行，这要求译者对法律术语、概念、条款、规范等有清晰的认识，并且注重对词语及结构的准确表达。此外，如前文所说，法律英语中有很多赘言，此时也应仔细甄别，并本着准确性的原则予以处理。

例1：Where a company fails to make allocation to the statutory reserve fund and statutory welfare fund in accordance herewith, such company shall be ordered to make full allocation to the required funds, and a fine of not less than 10,000 yuan but not more than 100,000 yuan may be levied on the company.

译文：公司不按照本法规定提取法定公积金、法定公益金的，责令如数补足应当提取的金额，并可对公司处以一万元以上十万元以下的罚款。

分析：原文谈及对于公司不按要求提取两种款项的情况作出了惩罚规定，这两种款项分别为“statutory reserve fund”与“statutory welfare fund”，一般并列连词前后两端如果有重复性用词，为了简洁起见可予以删除，但是法律文本中如果删除后文的“statutory”一词，则可能产生对后一项费用的界定不明，因此在翻译的过程中也要注意准确保留这个词，才使得译文与原文等效。

2.统一性

统一性表现在同一种表达方式在不同法律文本中，或者同一种表达方式在同一文本的前后文中应该有统一译法，这样才会使文本更具可读性，各项条文与规定更为清晰易懂，促进法规的对外宣传，并提高文本的权威性。

例2：Where an institution conducting assets appraisal, capital verification, or testing and verification provides a false certificate, the illegal income so derived shall be confiscated, and a fine of not less than 2 times but not more than 5 times the illegal income shall be imposed, and the relevant authority in charge may order such institution to cease operation, and revoke the qualification certificates of the persons directly responsible.

Where an institution conducting assets appraisal, capital verification or testing and verification provides a report with material omission due to its negligence, it shall be ordered to make rectification, and where the circumstance is relatively serious, a fine of not less than 2 times but not more than 3 times the income so derived shall be imposed, and the relevant authority in charge may order such institution to cease operation, and revoke the qualification certificates of the persons directly responsible.

译文：承担资产评估、验资或者验证的机构提供虚假证明文件的，没收违法所得，处以违法所得一倍以上五倍以下的罚款，并可由有关主管部门依法责令该机构停业，吊销直接责任人员的资格证书。

承担资产评估、验资或者验证的机构因过失提供有重大遗漏的报告的，责令改正，情节较重的，处以所得收入一倍以上三倍以下的罚款，并可由有关主管部门依法责令该机构停业，吊销直接责任人员的资格证书。

3.简练性

为了使译文更便于理解，行文更顺畅，对于原文中过于复杂的表达，在不影响其内容表达与效力相等的情况下，可对一些词句适当予以删节，以使行文更为简练。

例3：In any of the following circumstances which has led to the divorce of husband and wife, the innocent party shall be entitled to claim damages: a.bigamy; b.cohabitation between a person who has a spouse but co-habitat with a third person; c.domestic violence; d.maltreating or deserting any family.

译文：有下列情形之一，导致离婚的，无过错方有权请求损害赔偿：（一）重婚的；（二）有配偶者与他人同居的；（三）实施家庭暴力的；（四）虐待、遗弃家庭成员的。

4.专业性

专业性是要求在翻译过程中应使用约定俗成的专业术语及句式，以使译文庄重、地道、准确。

十大常见法律英语特殊句式有：

（1）subject to: 受„„支配

例4：No other products shall any longer be subject to consolidated industrial and commercial tax.

译文：其他产品都不再征收工商统一税。

（2）without prejudice to: 在不影响„„的条件下

例5：The offer was accepted without prejudice to the current pay negotiations.

译文：该提议获得接纳，但对目前正在进行的工资谈判并无影响.

（3）where: 凡

例6：Where an Offshore Investors remit its RMB profits out of China, the Bank may directly process the remittance after reviewing the relevant materials such as such as the resolution of the foreign-invested enterprise on profits disposal and the evidence on tax payment.

译文：凡是境外投资者将其所得的人民币利润汇出境内的，银行在审核外商投资企业有关利润处臵决议及纳税证明等有关材料后可直接办理。

（4）for the purpose of: 就„„而言

例7：For the purposes of this Law, the one-person company with limited liability means a company with limited liability where there is only one shareholder who is a natural person or a legal person.

译文：本法所称一人有限责任公司，是指只有一个自然人股东或者一个法人股东的有限责任公司。

（5）provided that: 但是

例8：At the end of the lease term, the parties may renew the lease, provided that the renewed term may not exceed twenty years commencing on the date of renewal.

译文：租赁期间届满，当事人可以续订租赁合同，但约定的租赁期限自续订之日起不得超过二十年。

（6）notwithstanding: 尽管

例9：Monetary conditions were largely stable in 1999, notwithstanding occasional turbulence in the external environment in the aftermath of the Asian financial turmoil.

译文：尽管外部环境在亚洲金融风暴后仍偶有波动，1999年货币状况大致稳定。

（7）save (except) for: 除„„以外

例10：It is also a Basic Law requirement that new recruits to the Civil Service on or after July 1, 1997, should normally be permanent residents of the HK SAR, save for certain exceptions, for example to fill professional and technical posts.

译文：《基本法》又要求，一九九七年七月一日或以后新聘的公务员，除非属某些例外情况如担任专门和技术职务，否则必须为香港特别行政区永久性居民。

（8）in respect of: 有关

例11：The defendant counterclaim for loss and damage in respect of a machine sold to him by the plaintiff.

译文：有关原告向其所售机器的被告就其所受损失和损害向原告提出反索赔。

（9）otherwise (与unless引导的句子连用）：另行

例12：Above term shall apply unless otherwise mention.

译文：除非另有说明书，上述条件一概适用。

（10）shall: 应该

例13：Anyone who commits the act specified in sub-paragraph (1) or (2) of the preceding paragraph shall be imposed with a penalty of not more than 10,000 yuan.

译文：有前款第（一）项、第（二）项行为的，处一万元以下的罚款。

第四节　 翻译技巧——从句的翻译

1.名词性从句

名词性从句主要涉及主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。翻译时，主语从句一般不改变原有的位置。

例1：What disappointed us most was that the pattern did not agree with the original design.

译文：令我们失望的是图案与原设计不符。

例2：The company denied that it was planning to go public.

译文：该公司否认计划上市。

例3：A dynamic team with creativity and motivation is what we desire.

译文：组建一个充满创造力和雄心的生机勃勃的团队是我们的心愿。

例4：We reached the airport only to hear the announcement that our flight was canceled.

译文：我们抵达机场，却听到广播说我们的航班取消了。

当主语从句过长而用it指代时，可以将其按原顺序翻译，也可将其还原到其本身应该出现的位臵。

例5：It remains a legend how the company developed so quickly from an SME to such an empire of standard products.

译文：富有传奇色彩的是该公司是如何从一家中小企业迅速发展为标准产品王国的。

也可以说成：“该公司如何从一家中小企业迅速发展为标准产品的王国是富有传奇色彩的”。

2.定语从句

（1）限定性定语从句

限定性定语从句与其先行词大多有很强的修饰限定关系，因此在翻译时要提到先行词前面。

例6：It will also have its own offices, associates or agents in the countries with which it trades.

译文：它在贸易伙伴所在的国家也拥有办公室，事务所或者代理商。

例7：Except in cases where the insurance is covered by the Buyers as arranged, insurance is to be covered by the Sellers with a Chinese insurance company.

译文：除经约定保险归买方投保者外，由卖方向中国的保险公司投保。

倘若定语从句过长，将其移臵先行词前面会造成汉语中动词及其宾语相距太远，结构因此松散，造成理解上的困难。

例8：The Equipment and Material which are carefully and properly packed in the best and stable condition according to the figures and characteristics of the Equipment and Material may be expected to withstand long-distance sea and inland transportation and numerous handlings.

译文：这些设备和材料得以依照其数据和特性，以最佳条件精心包装，因此有望承受长途海上和内陆运输与反复搬运。

（2）非限定性定语从句

由于修饰限定关系较弱，因此在翻译非限定性定语从句时可以采用更为灵活的译法。其中最常采用的是将非限定性定语从句一般保留在原位，不转换到先行词之前。

例9：The Buyer shall establish a Letter of Credit before the above-stipulated time, failing which, the Seller shall have the right to rescind this Contract upon the arrival of the notice at Buyer or to accept whole or part of this Contract non fulfilled by the Buyer, or to lodge a claim for the direct losses sustained, if any.

译文：买方应在上述规定日期之前开立信用证，否则卖方有权通知买方取消合同，或接受买方全部或部分未履行合同。此外，卖方还有权就直接损失索赔。

例10：In the last three years, our two offices have employed an average of fifty people, a lot of whom have been with the practice for many years.

译文：过去三年来，我们的两家办公室平均雇用了五十名员工，其中很多已经从业多年了。

但是有些情况下，例如非限定性定语从句和先行词限定关系较强，非限定性定语从句译为汉语后篇幅很短，或者修饰先行词的还有限定性定语从句时，为了行文流畅可以将定语提前。

例11：Meeting the daily challenge of competition, in both large-scale and small-scale contexts and succeeding in our work is only possible with a team that is capable of enthusiasm, and which is built on a basis of friendship and mutual trust.

译文：只有一个热情的团队，一个建立在友谊和相互信任基础上的团队，才能不论任务大小都有可能在日常竞争中成功，在工作中胜出。

句中有非限定性定语从句时，也可以将句子拆分，译成两个并列句：

例12：The manufacturer desires to appoint some overseas agents for its business abroad, who will work on commission.

译文：厂商希望指定一些海外代理负责其国外业务。这些代理以佣金为工作报酬。

此外，有些非限定性定语从句实际表示目的或结果，可以将其译为状语从句。

例13：It is necessary for us to conduct amicable negotiation on the quality discrepancy, which may help sustain our long-term cooperation.

译文：有必要就质量异议进行友好协商，以便维持我们的长期协作。

3.状语从句

英语状语从句根据功能的不同可分为时间、地点、原因、条件、让步、目的等状语从句。一般说来，状语从句在英语中位置灵活，既可以置于主句之前，又可以置于主句之后。因此在翻译状语从句时主要的问题是在于怎样将它们放入恰当的位置，怎样处理好句与句之间的连接关系。

（1）按原语序翻译

状语从句可以按照其原来语序翻译为汉语。

例14：If you find the quality of our products unsatisfactory, we‟re prepared to accept return of the rejected material within a week.

译文：如果贵方对产品质量不满意，我们将在一星期内接受退货。

例15：In case her age exceeds 15 years, the extra average insurance premium thus incurred shall be borne by the Seller.

译文：若其年龄超过15岁，则由买方承担因此产生的平均保险费以外的费用。

例16：We will personally deliver and install your office furniture for you so your project is done correctly, on-time and on-budget.

译文：我方将上门为贵方办公家具送货并且安装，以便贵方项目顺利地按时在预算金额内完成。

（2）转换语序

对于和汉语逻辑位置不同的状语从句，应该转换其位置。

例17：Why pay full price when you can get beautiful professional-quality furniture at up to 80% off?

译文：在能够以高达两折的折扣获得专业水准的家具时，为何要支付全价呢？

例18：I am contacting you because I can help you improve the pulling power of your advertising without increasing your advertising budge。

译文：因为我们可以帮助贵方不增加广告预算而提高其吸引力，所以与贵方联系。

例19：The Purchaser agrees to complete all operations on each zone before beginning cutting in the next portion or zone.

译文：买方同意在开始下一地区砍伐前完成该地区所有操作。

例20：Business is possible if you can lower the price to HK$2,150.

译文：你方若能减价到2 150港元，可能成交。

（3）转换状语从句类型

状语从句也可以根据其逻辑关系翻译成其他类型的状语分句。

例21：Where there is any quality discrepancy, the seller needs to look into it right away.

译文：倘若有质量异议，卖方需要立即调查。

例22：The Seller may, when it deems it reasonable and in the best interest of the Seller, allow the Purchaser to continue performance under the Contract.

译文：若卖方认为合理且符合买方最佳利益，可以允许买方继续履行合同。

（4）译为非状语从句

例23：Consumers are tight in our spending because the economic is in recession.

译文：经济萧条致使消费者支出紧缩。

例24：No modifications of this Contract or waiver of its terms and conditions shall be effective unless they are made in writing and signed by the parties.

译文：修订合同或取消条款条件以双方书面签字为准。

例25：The delegation will arrive next week, after we put an end to the seminar.

译文：代表团将在下周抵达。届时我们的研讨会已经结束。

练习

一、指出下列单词在法律英语中的特殊含义。

1.principal　　2.negligence　　 3.creditor　　　4.accord　　　 　5.acquire

6.bind　　　　 7.claim　　　　　8.damages　　　 9.declaration　　10.review

二、通读全文并将下列单词填入相应空白处。

disputes　　justice　　　pursuit　　　procedure　　　 　plaintiff　　roots procedural

reliance　　means　　　　adversary　　jurisdictions　　 claims　　　 judgment

parties　　 opposing

In all jurisdictions there is general agreement that the goal of civil 1 is the just, prompt, and inexpensive determination of 2 before the courts.There is similar agreement that 3 of this goal requires that the law of procedure provides some 4 for performing each of the following basic functions: notifying the defendant that the 5 is bringing suit, informing each party of the 6 and contentions of the other, determining the nature of the dispute and the issues between the 7 , ascertaining the facts, deciding which principles of law govern the case, applying the law to the facts to reach a 8 , giving the judgment effect in some practical way, and having the official actions of lower courts checked by higher courts.With very few exceptions, the differences that exist in the 9 laws of the various 10 are only differences with respect to the means chosen to perform one or more of these functions.In addition, American rules of procedure, with the exception of those in effect in Louisiana, have their 11 in the early English common law.Consequently, most differences are not differences in kind; they are differences in the degree of evolution from early common law concepts.Finally, in all of our jurisdictions much 12 is placed on the assumption that if each of the 13 parties takes the steps and advances the propositions that appear to him or her to best serve his or her own cause, truth and 14 will emerge.Because of this characteristic, our system is often referred to as the 15 system.

三、把下列句子翻译成英语。

1.为保护和改善生活环境与生态环境，防治污染和其他公害，保障人体健康，促进社会主义现代化建设的发展，制定本法。

2.在中华人民共和国领域内发生的违反治安管理行为，除法律有特别规定的以外，适用本条例。

3.中外合作者的一方转让其在合作企业合同中的全部或者部分权利、义务的，必须经他方同意，并报审查批准机关批准。

4.本办法自发布之日起施行。此前有关规定，与本办法不一致的，以本办法为准。

5.因进口产品数量增加，使国内相同产品或者与其直接竞争的产品的生产者受到严重损害或者严重损害的威胁时，国家可以采取必要的保障措施，消除或者减轻这种损害或者损害的威胁。

四、把下列篇章翻译成汉语。

Articles of Association for Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures

Chapter 1 General Provision

Article 1

In accordance with the “Law of the People's Republic of China on Joint Venture Using Chinese and Foreign Investment” and the contract signed on in _________, China, by, ×× Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party A) and ××× Co., Ltd.(hereinafter referred to as Party A), to set up a joint venture, ×× Limited Liability Company (hereinafter referred to as joint venture company), the Articles of Association hereby is formulated.

Article 2

The names of the joint venture company shall be ×× Limited Liability Company.

Its abbreviation is...

The Legal address of the joint venture company is at...

Article 3

The names and legal addresses of each parties are as follows:

Party A: ×× Co., China, and its legal address is...

Party B: ××× Co., Ltd, and its legal address is...

Article 4

The organization form of joint venture company is a limited liability company.The liabilities of each party to the joint venture company just limits to its contributed capital, which stipulated in the Articles of Association or in the revised afterwards.The profits, risks and losses of the joint venture company shall be shared by the parties in proportion to their contributions of the registered capital.

Article 5

The joint venture company has the status of a legal person and is subject to the jurisdiction and protection of Chinese laws concerned.All activities of the joint venture company shall be governed by the laws.decrees and pertinent rules and regulations of the People's Republic of China.