第十三章 国 际 贸 易
第一节 文章阅读与翻译
Passage 1
World Trade
世 界 贸 易
［1］In today's complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient.Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills.This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity.As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved.
［2］For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any of its own.Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil1, Columbia2 and Guatemala3) that grow coffee efficiently.On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them.If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive.So instead of barter, which is the trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United States receives money in payment for what it sells.4 It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles from Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United States.
［3］Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons.The first, as mentioned above, is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs.Raw materials are scattered around the world.Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East.Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.
［4］Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs.Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
［5］Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries.Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries.It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically.According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage.5 It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.
［6］Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style.6 Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it will imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.
［7］For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity.When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade.When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists.Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.
Notes
1.Brazil: Brazil shares a border with almost every other country in South America—only Chile and Ecuador are untouched—and covers almost half the continent.It is the fifth largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada, China, and the U.S.A., with an area of eight and a half million square kilometers.Despite its vast expanse of territory, Brazil's population is concentrated in the major cities of its coast.Brazil's society and economy were based on agriculture and mining, especially the export-oriented production of sugar and gold.
2.The Republic of Columbia: Colombia is bordered on the northwest by Panama, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and on the southwest by Peru and Ecuador.Through the western half of the country, three Andean ranges run north and south.The eastern half is a low, jungle-covered plain, drained by spurs of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers, inhabited mostly by isolated tropical-forest Indian tribes.The fertile plateau and valley of the eastern range are the most densely populated parts of the country.The mountainous character of much of Colombia's territory, along with the attendant climatic variations of the different vertical zones, allows for the production of an unusually wide range of both tropical and temperate-zone crops, from bananas and sugarcane to wheat, barley, and potatoes.Coffee has long represented the backbone of the Colombian economy, bringing premium prices on the world market and constituting about half of all legal exports.
3.Guatemala: A country of central America.The dominance of an Indian culture within its interior uplands distinguishes Guatemala from its Central American neighbours.The country's contemporary capital, Guatemala City, is a major metropolitan centre; Quetzaltenango in the western highlands is the nucleus of the Indian population.Guatemala is a less-developed country largely dependent upon traditional commercial crops such as coffee, sugar, and bananas as the basis of its market economy.
4.barter: Trading in which goods or services are exchanged without the use of cash.易货贸易
译文：因此，美国销售商品时，接受的是货币形式的支付，而不进行不以货币为媒介的贸易——易货贸易。
5.comparative advantage: Concept in economics that a country should specialize in producing and exporting only those goods and services which it can produce more efficiently (at lower opportunity cost) than other goods and services (which it should import).Comparative advantage results from different endowments of the factors of production (capital, land, labor) entrepreneurial skill, power resources, technology, etc.It therefore follows that free trade is beneficial to all countries, because each can gain if it specializes according to its comparative advantage.比较优势（如果与生产其他商品的成本相比，一个国家生产的某种产品的成本比另一个国家低，那么，该国就在这种商品的生产上与另一个国家相比具有比较优势。）
译文：根据经济理论，日本应该生产和出口那些因生产费用较低而获利的产品，购买和进口那些自己需要的、别国也因生产费用较低而获利的产品。
6.译文：最后，产品的设计或式样各不相同，也是产生对外贸易的原因。
Words and Expressions
1.self-sufficient adj.able to provide everything you need, especially food, for yourself without the help of other people 自给自足的
2.cumbersome adj.awkward because of being large, heavy or ineffective 累赘的，繁琐的
3.restrictive adj.limiting the freedom of someone or preventing something from growing 限制（性）的，约束（性）的
restrictive trade practice a business agreement between companies which controls prices or the areas in which goods are sold, preventing fair competition from other companies限制性贸易措施
4.raw material: material that came from nature and is still in an unprocessed or minimally processed state 原材料
5.scatter v.to (cause to) move far apart in different directions 分布，分散
6.deposit n.a layer of a mineral, metal etc that is left in soil or rocks though a natural process 矿藏
7.derive sth.from sth.to get or obtain something from something else 得到，获得
8.innovation n.(the use of) a new idea, method or invention 新观念，新方法，新发明
Passage 2
China Uses Rules on Global Trade to Its Advantage
中国让全球贸易规则为其所用
［1］With China's exports soaring, even as other major economies struggle to recover from the recession1, evidence is mounting that Beijing is skillfully using inconsistencies in international trade rules to spur its own economy at the expense of others, including the United States.
［2］Seeking to maintain its export dominance, China is engaged in a two-pronged effort: fighting protectionism2 among its trade partners and holding down the value of its currency.3
［3］China vigorously defends its economic policies.On Sunday, Premier Wen Jiabao criticized international pressure on China to let the currency appreciate4, calling it “finger pointing.” He said that the renminbi, China's currency, would be kept “basically stable.”
［4］To maximize its advantage, Beijing is exploiting a fundamental difference between two major international bodies: the World Trade Organization, which wields strict, enforceable penalties for countries that impede trade, and the International Monetary Fund5, which acts as a kind of watchdog for global economic policy but has no power over countries like China that do not borrow money from it.
［5］China had a $198 billion trade surplus with the rest of the world last year, with its exports to the United States outpacing imports by more than four to one.Despite that, in the last 12 months, Beijing has filed more cases with the WTO's powerful trade tribunals in Geneva6 than any other country complaining about another's trade practices.
［6］In addition, Beijing has worked to suppress a series of IMF.reports since 2007 documenting how the country has substantially undervalued its currency, the renminbi, said three people with detailed knowledge of China's actions.
［7］China buys dollars and other foreign currencies—worth several hundred billion dollars a year—by selling more of its own currency, which then depresses its value.That intervention helped Chinese exports to surge 46 percent in February compared with a year earlier.
［8］Many prominent academic economists see a basic contradiction in the global system of oversight on trade and currency.
［9］“Many of us would like to see the WTO-style commitments—with people's feet being held to the fire—at other international agencies, like the IMF.,” said Jagdish Bhagwati, a Columbia University economist.
［10］Western countries hoped last year to bring international pressure to bear on China, after years of complaining that Beijing keeps the renminbi artificially low.
Notes
1.recession: a period of reduced economic activity 经济衰退
2.protectionism: Governmental policy aimed at shielding a fragile economy, or a week or critical sector, from cheaper or better imports through imposition of high duty rates (tariff barriers), quotas, and/or inordinately stringent or time consuming inspection or quality regulations (non-tariff barriers).All countries practice protectionism in one form or another but, generally, without going to any extreme.贸易保护主义
3.译文：为了保持出口的优势，中国主要致力于作两个方面的努力：一是打击贸易伙伴的贸易保护主义，二是控制其货币的价值。
4.appreciate: to increase the value of 货币升值
5.IMF: The International Monetary Fund is an international organization that was created on July 22, 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and came into existence on December 27, 1945 when 29 countries and regions signed the Articles of Agreement.The IMF's stated goal was to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world's international payment system post-World War II.Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily.Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members‟ economies and policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its members.Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C., United States.国际货币基金组织
6.Geneva: Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland (after Zurich) and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland.Geneva is a global city, a financial centre, and worldwide centre for diplomacy and the most important UN international co-operation centre with New York thanks to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross.日内瓦
Words and Expressions
1.inconsistencies n.the quality of being inconsistent and lacking a harmonious uniformity among things or parts 前后矛盾；不一致
2.vigorously adv.with vigor; in a vigorous manner 有活力地；积极地
3.tribunals n.a court or forum of justice 审理委员会；特别法庭
4.intervention n.the act of intervening in a situation 干预
5.prominent adj.widely and popularly known 知名的；重要的
6.commitments n.an agreement or pledge to do something in the future; especially: an engagement to assume a financial obligation at a future date 承诺；责任；义务
Passage 3
Foreign Exchange Trading 外 汇 交 易
［1］Without foreign exchange trading, international trade itself could not exist.In former times trade was based on bartering—goods were exchanged for other goods.The introduction of precious metals (i.e., gold and silver) to pay for goods can be considered the forerunner of the foreign exchange market.
［2］The Greeks and Romans commonly used gold as a medium of exchange.Most world trade continued to be based on gold until the nineteenth century.But then industrialization in Western Europe and the United States had boosted world trade to such an extent that gold reserves were no longer adequate to meet the requirements.Governments introduced a par value1 of their respective local currencies2 in gold.Thus, the currencies were related to one another through a system called the gold standard.The gold standard system determined the value of all currencies based on gold.This meant the values of different currencies could be compared in terms of one another.
［3］The system worked well until World War I, when trade was interrupted.After the war, currencies fluctuated widely in terms of gold and, thus, in relation to each other.3 The value of currencies was meant to be regulated by supply and demand (the market mechanism), but speculators often interfered with this mechanism.So in an effort to create more stable exchange markets, some countries, notably the United States, England, and France, returned to the gold standard.Except for a brief period in the early 1930s, the United States stayed on the gold standard.By 1971 it was the only country whose currency remained convertible into gold, and so, by declaring the dollar inconvertible, the gold standard was finally abolished.4
［4］In 1944 toward the end of World War II, the Western industrialized nations realized that foreign trade would be necessary to quickly and effectively heal the wounds of war.To create a calm and stable foreign exchange market, the United States government called for a conference in the summer of 1944.It was held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.At this conference, both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development5 were established.
［5］The Bretton Woods Agreement6 stipulated that all member countries would express the value of their currencies in gold.However, only the United States dollar was convertible into gold, at the price of $35 an ounce.
［6］Central banks7 of the member countries were required to intervene in the foreign exchange markets to keep the value of their currencies within 1percent of the par value.This intervention was achieved by buying or selling foreign exchange or gold.A given currency could, therefore, never rise above nor fall below fixed points, which are called intervention points.These are the prices beyond which the central bank intervenes.This is called the system of fixed exchange rates.
［7］The system of fixed exchange rates worked well until the late 1960s and early 1970s.At that time a number of countries devalued their currencies.This meant that their currencies were now worth less in terms of gold.England in 1967, France in 1969, and the United States in 1971 and 1973, devalued their currencies.This caused an almost unprecedented turbulence in the foreign exchange markets.In addition, countries such as West Germany and Holland revalued their currencies (increased the par value of their currencies in terms of gold).Intervention by central banks became very costly.Foreign currency and gold reserves were drained.Countries had to buy their own currency with gold and foreign exchange in order to keep its value above the minimum intervention point, as agreed at Bretton Woods.
［8］It is not surprising, then, that the world saw a return to a floating exchange rate system.Central banks were no longer required to support their own currencies.England, France (only temporarily), Italy, Japan, and the United States all floated their currencies.Western Europe, united in the Common Market8, moved to preserve the fixed-rate system but allowed a widening of the intervention points to within 2.25 percent of the par value of the currencies.9 This system became known as the snake since these currencies move up and down together against currencies outside the snake.The British and the Italians, now members of the Common Market, are expected to eventually join their currencies to the snake.
［9］The foreign exchange market is the mechanism through which foreign currencies are traded.It is not an actual market-place but a system of telephone and telex communications between banks, customers, and middlemen (foreign exchange brokers, acting for a client vis-a-vis the bank).10
Notes
1.par value: Apparent worth or the nominal value shown on the principal (“face” or “head”) side of a bill of exchange, currency, security (stock/share, bond), or other type of financial instrument.平价，票面价值
2.currency: Tokens used as money in a country.In addition to the metal coins and paper bank notes, modern currency also includes checks drawn on bank accounts, money orders, travelers checks, and will soon include electronic money or digital cash.货币
3.译文：战后，以黄金计算的各国币值激烈波动，因而相互比值也极不稳定。
4.译文：到1971年，美国是惟一的本国货币能兑换成黄金的国家，所以在美国宣布美国停兑黄金后，金本位制就最后被废除了。
5.International Bank For Reconstruction And Development (IBRD)：Original name of the World Bank.Established together with International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1944 as part of Bretton Woods system to rebuild the Western economies shattered by second world War through financing of commercial and infrastructural projects.Though it does not compete with commercial banks, it may participate in loan syndication, and its lending policies are based largely on strict commercial criteria.Its member countries must also be members of the IMF, and (as in IMF) have voting power weighted according to their contribution to the Bank.For example, the US has about 20 percent of the voting power and always chooses the bank's president.国际复兴开发银行（现更名为世界银行）
6.Bretton Woods agreement: An agreement signed in 1944 that outlined rules and regulations for an international monetary system.It established a fixed exchange rate linked to the U.S.dollar, with other countries pegging their currency to the dollar.It created the International Monetary Fund (IMF), as well as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), a precursor for the modern World Bank.By the 1970s the fixed exchange rate collapsed, as the U.S.was no longer willing to exchange the dollar for gold.The agreement was so named because it was signed in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.布雷顿森林协定
7.central bank: Autonomous or semi-autonomous organization entrusted by a government to, administer certain key monetary functions, such as to (1) issue, manage, and preserve value of the country's currency, (2) regulate the amount of money supply, (3) supervise the operations of commercial banks, (4) and serve as a banker's bank and the local lender of last resort.Some Central banks (such as the Bank Of England) provide all these functions, others (such as in Germany and the US) employ two or more organizations.Most Central banks are owned by their respective governments (such as Bank Of England, Banque De France, Reserve Bank Of India), others (such as Belgian Central Bank and Bank Of Japan) have mixed ownerships, and two (Germany's Bundesbank and the US Federal Reserve System) are owned by private banks.Bank of Sweden (1656) was the first Central bank, followed by the Bank of England (1694) and the Bank of France (1800).Bank of Japan was established in 1888, and the US Federal Reserve System in 1913.中央银行
8.common market: Group formed by countries within a geographical area to promote duty free trade and free movement of labor and capital among its members.European community (as a legal entity within the framework of European Union) is the best known example.Common markets impose common external tariff (CET) on imports from non-member countries.共同市场
9.译文：英国、法国（只是暂时地）、意大利、日本和美国都让它们的货币实行浮动。联合在共同市场里的西欧采取了行动以保持固定汇率制，但是允许把各国货币的干预点扩大到货币平价的2.25%的幅度内。
10.译文：外汇市场是进行外币交易的一种机制，它并不是一个真正的市场，而只是银行、顾客和中间人（代表委托人和银行打交道的外汇经纪人）之间进行电话和电传联系的一项体系。
Words and Expressions
1.forerunner n.something or someone that acts as an early and less advanced model for what will appear in the future, or a warning or sign of what is to follow 先驱
2.medium of exchange commodity, currency, or a financial instrument used in commercial transactions between buyers and sellers as a measure and standard of value.A distinguishing characteristic of money is its ability to be used as a medium of exchange.交易媒介（指货币、支票等）
3.boost v.to improve or increase something推进，提高
4.respective adj.relating or belonging to each of the individual people or things you have just mentioned各自的，各个的
5.fluctuate v.to change or vary, especially continuously and between one level or thing and another变动，上下，动摇
6.speculator n.Futures market (期货市场) participant who attempts to gain from anticipated change in prices of commodities or financial instruments.Speculators aim primarily at quick profit from a short-term acquisition of assets.投机者，投机商人
7.stay on to continue to be in a place, job or school after the other people who were with you have left 保持；留在（继续住下去）
8.convertible adj.specialized describes a type of money that can be easily exchanged into other types of money可变换的
9.heal v.to make or become well again, especially after a cut or other injury 痊愈，使„„复原，和解
10.stipulate v.to state exactly how something must be or must be done 规定，明定
11.intervene v.to intentionally become involved in a difficult situation in order to improve it or prevent it from getting worse.插入，调停，干涉
12.devalue v.to reduce the rate at which money can be exchanged for foreign money 贬值13.unprecedented adj.never having happened or existed in the past空前的14.turbulence n.a state of confusion and lack of order喧嚣，狂暴，骚乱15.drain v.to reduce or cause something to reduce 耗尽
16.broker n.person who serves as a trusted agent or intermediary in commercial negotiations or transactions.Brokers are usually licensed professionals in fields where specialized knowledge is required, such as finance, insurance, and real estate.经纪人
17.vis-à-vis prep.in relation to 关于
第二节 翻译技巧——语篇的衔接与翻译（一）
1.语篇的概念
翻译总是从词句译起，遣词造句是翻译的基本功，但翻译不是词句的简单组合，而是超越词句的语篇材料，蕴含着文本的语气、文本、形式、隐喻或音韵效果。（潘红，2004）由此可见，只有在具有语篇意识的前提下译者才能完成所承担的翻译任务。
目前为止，国内外的语言学家和翻译家对语篇给出了不同的定义。
韩礼德（2007）（M.A.K.Halliday）对语篇的定义是“语篇这个词在语言学中用来指任何长度的、语义完整的口语或书面语的段落”。
诺德（1997）（Christiane Nord）认为“语篇是交际活动过程”。
胡壮麟（1994）对语篇的定义是：“语篇指任何不完全受句子语法约束的在一定语境下表示完整语义的自然语言。”
李运兴（1998）认为“所谓语篇，即在交际功能上相对完整和独立的一个语言片段。内容相对完整的文章或著作节选可称为语篇。”
张德禄（2003）认为语篇不是一个超级句子，而是一个意义单位，是人们实际进行的语言交流的实例，是在一定的语境中讲的话或写的文章，从最短的表述，如人们临危时喊出的“Help! Help!”，到多数情况下要由若干句话、数十句话以至更多的话组成。
魏在江（2007）在讨论了语篇界说的困惑之后认为，语篇的界定应该从语义结构而不是语法结构的角度着眼，因为语篇首先是一个“意义单位”，其形式的大小或长短是由意义的简单或复杂而决定的，但只要具备了以下一些基本特征：结构上的衔接性、句际间的逻辑性、意义上的完整性、语义上的连贯性、交际功能的独立性、与情景语境的一致性等，任何长度的口头话语或书面文字都可视为语篇。
为了能够清楚全面地理解语篇概念，本书采用魏在江的定义。
2.语篇的衔接
语篇中的衔接（cohesion）和连贯（coherence）是篇章语言学（text linguistics）中两个重要的概念。胡壮麟先生对衔接与连贯之间关系的描述是：对一个有意义的可接受的语篇来说，它在语言各层次（如语义、词汇、句法、语音等）的成分都可表现出某种程度的衔接，从而使说话人在交际过程中所欲表达的意图贯通整个语篇，达到交际目的。但在特殊情况下，语言成分之间的衔接并不能保证语篇的交际意图总是取得连贯；另一方面，衔接不太明显的语篇有时是内容连贯的。
由此可见，语篇的衔接与连贯虽关系紧密但也有所区别。本章与第十四章将重点讲解衔接的概念、手段以及衔接手段在英汉语篇翻译中的应用。第十五章和第十六章将重点讲解语篇的连贯。
2.1 衔接的概念和手段
在1962年韩礼德首次提出了衔接的概念。1976年，韩礼德和哈桑出版了Cohesion in English一书，在此书中，他们认为“衔接是一种语义上的概念，它指存在于语篇内的意义关系。衔接发生在一些成分依赖于其他成分的语篇内。一种衔接手段预设着另一种衔接手段的存在。衔接一部分通过语法手段表达出来，一部分通过词汇表达出来。”韩礼德和哈桑又将衔接的语法手段和词汇手段细划为五种手段：（1）照应（reference），（2）替代（substitution），（3）省略（ellipsis），（4）连接（conjunction），（5）词汇衔接（lexical cohesion）。本章重点讲解照应、替代和省略，下一章重点讲解连接和词汇衔接。
2.2 衔接的语法手段
2.2.1 照应（reference）
照应是指语篇中的一个成分作为另一个成分的参照点，指用代词等语法手段来表示语义关系。韩礼德将照应分为人称照应、指示照应和比较照应。
（1）人称照应
人称照应是运用话语情景中的功能、通过人称类别表现的照应。传统的人称分类的区别仅在于第一（I, we）、第二（you）和第三人称（he, she, it, they, one），而这里的人称范畴既包括这三种人称代词的主格和宾格（me, us, you, him, her, it, them, one），又包括其各自的所有格形容词（my, our, your, his, her, its, their, one's）和所有格代词（mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs）。
例：Passage 1第7段
For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity.When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade.When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists.Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.
分析：此段第二、三句中的they均与nations照应，第四句中的them 也与该句中的nations照应。
译文：对多数国家来说，进出口是最重要的国际间的活动。一国的出口量大于进口量，就称之为出现了贸易顺差；进口量大于出口量，就存在贸易逆差。各国都力图保持贸易顺差，以确保掌握必要商品进口的手段。
（2）指示照应
指示照应是指说话人通过指明事物在时间和空间上的远近来确定所指的对象，主要是由指示代词（this, these, that, those）和指示副词（here, there, now, then例）体现的照应。
例：Passage 1 第5段2-5句
....Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries.It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically.According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage.It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.
分析：第3句中的these和第4句中的those items 均与第2句中的radios and television sets 相照应，第5句中的those countries 与that have a comparative advantage in the desired items 是相互照应的关系。
译文：日本之所以能出口大量的收音机和电视机，是因为日本的生产效率高于别国。对于美国来说，进口日本货要比自己生产合算。根据经济理论，日本应该生产和出口那些因生产费用较低而获利的产品，购买和进口那些自己需要的、别国也因生产费用较低而获利的产品。
（3）比较照应
比较照应是通过相同性或相似性达到的间接照应，通常是由表示相同、相似或相异的形容词和副词，以及形容词或副词的比较级体现的。如same, identical, different, similarly, likewise, so, such, the same, differently, better, more等。
例1：....The picture is not the same all over the world.The average length of time a worker takes to find a new job can be much longer in one country than for a similar worker in another country experiencing similar conditions.In other words, some countries are better at making the adjustment than others.This is partly because some countries have more effective adjustment policies.Those without effective policies are missing an opportunity.
分析：该段中的表示相同的the same, similar, 以及比较级much longer, better, more effective构成了比较照应，使文中前后事物的关系清晰可见。
译文：这种情形也是因国而异的，有时，两个工种和经历的相似的工人在不同的国家找一份新工作所花费的时间是不同的。换句话说，有些国家更擅长于作出调整，部分原因就在于有些国家的调整政策比其他国家的更有效，那些没有调整政策的国家就会坐失良机。
2.2.2 替代（substitution）
替代是指用替代词来取代语篇中出现的词。替代不仅可以避免语篇中语言的重复，而且可以起到衔接上下文的作用。被替代的部分可以是名词、动词或者是句子，所以可以分为名词性替代、动词性替代和分句性替代。
（1）名词性替代：最常见的英语名词替代词为one, ones, some, the other, others, the same, the kind, the former, the latter等。
例1：For example, technological advance has also had a strong impact on employment and productivity, benefiting some jobs, hurting others.
分析：others替代了some other jobs
译文：例如，科技的进步对就业状况和生产力的提高就会产生很大的影响，对某些工作的就业会有利，但对其他的工作就会造成不利的影响。
例2：Collection is of two kinds: collection with bill of exchange against documents and collection with a clean bill.In practice, the latter is not so widely used as the former.
分析：此例第二句中的the latter 和the former分别替代前句中的两个名词短语collection with bill of exchange against documents和collection with a clean bill。
译文：托收可分为两种：一种是跟单汇票的托收；另一种则是光票托收。在实际操作中，后一种没有第一种用得广泛。
（2）动词性替代：这种替代可以使用助动如do, does, did。
例：A: Do they buy their drinks at the local supermarket?
B: No, but we do.
分析：B句中的do替代A句中的动词buy
译文：A: 他们在当地超市里买饮料吗？
B: 他们不买，但我们买。
（3）分句性替代：这种替代经常使用一个形式词，如so, this, that来代替整个或部分句子。
例：Following the OPEC oil embargo, for example, United State automakers began to make greater numbers of small cars and fewer of the large models they had previously produced.This did not happen because government intervention had ordered this charge.
分析：This所替代的是分句United State automakers began to make greater numbers of small cars and fewer of the large models they had previously produced.
译文：欧佩克颁布石油禁运令之后，例如，美国汽车制造商开始打算生产更多的小型车而减少原有大型车的产量。这种情况之所以没有发生，是因为政府的干预控制了局面。
2.2.3 省略（ellipsis）
省略是指把语篇中的某个成分省去不提。这种方法也可以避免重复，突出新的信息，使语篇上下紧凑。省略同样可以分为动词性省略、名词性省略和分句性省略。
（1）名词性省略：这种省略是将名词词组的中心词省略掉，只保留限定词或限定词加前置修饰语。
例：Attitude surveys focus on customers‟ perceptions of, and attitudes to, products and the companies who make them.
分析：perceptions of 后面省略了products and the companies who make them。
译文：顾客态度调查主要是调查顾客对产品及厂家的认识和看法。
（2）动词性省略：这种省略是指动词词组中的省略现象。动词词组可能仅是以一个实义动词为中心组成的词组，也可能是以助动词＋实义动词为中心组成的词组。所以，动词性省略有时省略的是惟一的实义动词，有时将实义动词省略，保留助动词。
例：Under this system, the value of a currency unit was not directly fixed or defined in terms of gold but rather (....) in terms of a currency which was fixed in terms of so much gold.
分析：此句中but rather后面省略了was fixed or defined。
译文：在这种货币制度下，一货币单位值不是以黄金形式直接确定或规定的，而是以另一种由含金度多少而定的货币来确定的。
（3）分句性省略：这种省略指整个分句被省略，多见于对话中。
例：A: Do you mean they are both named George?
B: No.One is Samuel, the other is Albert.
分析：根据上下文情景可以清楚的知道no后面回答的意思是什么，所以B句中的No后面省略了应回答的句子they are not both named George.这样语言就更加简洁了。
译文：A: 你的意思是他们两位都叫乔治吗？
B: 不，其中一个叫塞缪，另一个叫艾尔波特。
2.3 英汉照应、替代和省略衔接手段的区别
英汉篇章都要求内容的一致性，结构的衔接性和意义的连贯性，为此，也都具有各自的衔接手段。英汉语篇在语法衔接手段方面还是存在着一些差异的。只有在了解了这些差异的前提下，译者才能在英译汉或汉译英时保证译文结构的衔接性和意义的连贯性。
2.3.1 照应的区别
照应的类型方面，英汉两种语言没有太大差别，但是，在英语中，照应手段使用的频率要远大于汉语，原因是，英语语篇要求尽量避免重复，注重句子之间形式关联，而汉语则习惯于实称，更加注重句子之间的意思关联。
例：This plan was brought into being in 1948.Its aim is to prevent anyone from going without medical services, if he needs them, however poor he may be; to ensure that a person who is out of work shall receive a weekly sum of money to subsist on.
分析：原句中为了避免重复使用了人称照应手法，在第二句中使用its来照应前面的this plan。在译成汉语时却可以重复“计划”一词。a person与who is out of work也是照应关系，而汉译时将定语从句译为偏正结构词组。
译文：这一计划是在1948年出台的。计划的目的是使任何需要就医的人能享受到医疗服务，不管他有多贫穷；确保每一个失业的人每个星期都能领到一份救济金。
2.3.2 替代和省略的区别
替代和省略都是为了避免重复，使语言表达简练、紧凑而采用的两种语篇衔接手段。与英语相比，替代和省略两种手段在汉语中的使用频率要低。主要是因为汉语往往需要重复被替代或省略的部分。
例1：For example, technological advance has also had a strong impact on employment and productivity, benefiting some jobs, hurting others.
分析：others替代了some other jobs, 但在译成汉语时如果译为“但对其他的就会造成不利的影响”会产生歧义，这里“其他”可能会指包括工作在内的更广泛的范围。所以，译为“其他的工作”一词使指代更加明确。
译文：例如，技术的进步对就业状况和生产力的提高就会产生很大的影响，对某些工作的就业会有利，但对其他的工作就会造成不利的影响。
例2：Under this system, the value of a currency unit was not directly fixed or defined in terms of gold but rather (...) in terms of a currency which was fixed in terms of so much gold.
译文：在这种货币制度下，一货币单位值不是以黄金形式直接确定或规定的，而是以另一种由含金度多少而定的货币来确定的。
分析：此句中but rather后面省略了was fixed or defined, 在译成汉语时添加上省略的谓语，这样的汉语才通顺。
练习
一、请将下面短文中划线部分译为中文，注意衔接手段在语篇中的应用和汉译时的转换。
Unique Problems in International Trade
There are some unique problems in international trade and companies doing business overseas must be aware of them.In particular, these include (a) cultural problems, (b) monetary conversion, and (c) trade barriers.
Cultural Problems
1.When companies do business overseas, they come in contact with people from different cultures.These individuals often speak a different language and have their own particular custom and manners.These differences can create problems.
For example, in France, business meetings begin promptly at the designated time and everyone is expected to be there.2.Foreign business people who are tardy are often left outside to cool their heels as a means of letting them know the importance of promptness.Unless one is aware of such expected behaviors he may end up insulting the people with whom he hopes to establish trade relations.
Monetary Conversion
A second traditional problem is that of monetary conversion.For example, if a transaction is conducted with the Soviet Union, payment may be made in rubles.Of course, this currency is of little value to the American firm.It is, therefore, necessary to convert the foreign currency to American dollars.3.How much are these Russian rubles worth in terms of dollars? This conversion rate is determined by every market, where the currencies of countries are bought and sold.Thus there is an established rate, although it will often fluctuate from day to day.For example, the ruble may be worth $0.75 on Monday and $ 0.72 on Tuesday because of an announced wheat shortage on Russia.In addition, there is the dilemma associated with converting at $0.72.Some financial institutions may be unwilling to pay this price, feeling that the ruble will sink much lower over the next week.As a result, conversion may finally come at $0.69.These “losses” must be accepted by the company as one of the costs of doing business overseas.
Trade Barriers
A third unique problem is trade barriers.4.For one reason or another, all countries impose trade barriers on certain goods crossing their borders.Some trade barriers are directly related to exports.For example, the United States permits strategic military material to be shipped abroad only after government permission has been obtained.5.Most trade barriers, however, are designed to restrict imports.Two of the most common import barriers are quotas and tariffs.
二、阅读下面短文，请找出照应、省略和替代的衔接手段，并将划线段落译成中文。
Problems Facing Potential Exporters
［1］Many firms fail because when they begin exporting they have not researched the target markets or developed an international marketing plan.To be successful, a firm must clearly define goals, objectives and potential problems.Secondly, it must develop a definitive plan to accomplish its objective, regardless of the problems involved.Unless the firm is fortunate enough to possess a staff with considerable expertise, it may not be able to take this crucial first step without qualified outside guidance.
［2］Often top management is not committed enough to overcome the initial difficulties and financial requirements of exporting.It can often take more time and effort to establish a firm in a foreign market than in the domestic one.Although the early delays and costs involved in exporting may seem difficult to justify when compared to established domestic trade, the exporter should take a more objective view of this process and carefully monitor international marketing efforts through these early difficulties.If a good foundation is laid for export business, the benefits derived should eventually outweigh the investment.
［3］Another problem area is in the selection of the foreign distributor.The complications involved in overseas communications and transportation require international distributors to act with greater independence than their domestic counterparts.Also, since a new exporter's trademarks and reputation are usually unknown in the foreign market, foreign customers may buy on the strength of the distributing agent's reputation.A firm should therefore conduct a thorough evaluation of the distributor's facilities, the personnel handling its account, and the management methods employed.
［4］Another common difficulty for the new exporter is the neglect of the exporter market once the domestic one booms: too many companies only concentrate on exporting when there is a recession.Others may refuse to modify products to meet the regulations or cultural preferences of other countries.Local safety regulations cannot be ignored by exporters.If necessary modifications are not made at the factory, the distributor must make them, usually at a greater cost and probably not as satisfactorily.It should also be noted that the resulting smaller profit margin makes the account less attractive.
［5］If exporters expect distributing agents to actively promote their accounts, they must be trained, and their performance continually monitored.This requires a company marketing executive to be located permanently in the distributor's geographical region.It is therefore advisable for new exporters to concentrate their efforts in a few geographical areas until there is sufficient business to support a company representative.The distributor should also be treated on an equal basis with domestic counterparts.For example, special discount offers, sales incentive programmes and special credit terms should be available.
［6］Considering a joint-venture or licensing agreement is another option for new exporters.However, many companies still dismiss international marketing as unviable.There are a number of reasons for this.There may be import restrictions in the target market, the company may lack sufficient financial resources, or its product line may be too limited.Yet, many products that can compete on a national basis can be successful in the majority of world markets.In general, all that is needed for success is flexibility in using the proper combinations of marketing techniques.
三、阅读下面短文，请将被打乱语序的段落重新排序，并将该段译成汉语。
How US Businessmen Make Foreign Investment Decisions
［1］The National Council for US-China Trade has its members and associates companies raging from the very largest, such as General Motors, down to the very small company, companies with as few as 10 employees.
［2］① These small, even tiny companies, are frequently formed when professors and research scientists, engineers and technicians, who have been studying and doing research in certain fields, leave large institutions and form small entrepreneurial type companies to exploit and produce their new findings.
② Other examples would include professors leaving the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University to form new small companies in the computer science and electronic areas.
③ In the United States, much new technology and many new products, components and services now reside in, and are owned by, small companies.
④ Examples would include professors leaving the Universities of Wisconsin, Iowa State and Purdue and forming companies in the new bio-genetics areas, performing gene splitting, and producing new products in animal and plant life, and pharmaceuticals as well.
⑤ Former scientists at the University of Utah now own and operate several companies producing artificial human organs such as mechanical heart and the artificial ear.
［3］Employees of large companies.(Such as IBM, General Electric and Hewlett-Packard), also frequently break away and form their own small companies to develop, produce and market new advanced products, services and technologies, such as the gallium arsenide high-speed semi-conductor as a replacement for silicon.
［4］CITIC may want to deal with some of these very small, advanced technology firms.These emerging small companies would like to do business with countries such as China; however, they have concerns about such a relationship.My presentation reflects the thinking of these new small high technology companies.
［5］Small high technology companies have several good business reasons why foreign opportunities might be considered in spite of the difficulties inherent in capitalizing on them.
［6］The first is to gain a supply of needed resources.
［7］The second is to lower production cost—either to be more competitive in one's home market or to serve a new area.
［8］The third is to penetrate the market where the investment is to be made.
［9］These reasons, of course, could apply to anything from establishing a new office in the next town to building a whole new manufacturing plant half way around the world; but when a foreign location is involved, some of the questions that must be asked to evaluate the options properly, become much more difficult to answer.
四、请将下文中划线部分译成英文，注意汉英语篇中衔接手段使用的差异。
更自由化的贸易，更低的生活支出
［1］我们大家都是消费者，而消费品的价格，比如食品和衣服，必需品和奢侈品，或是介于两者间的其他消费品都受到贸易政策的影响。根据一项计算，在富裕的国家，各国消费者和政府为保护农业所支付的费用高达3 500亿美元，而这笔巨额费用足以让它们的4 100万头奶牛坐头等机舱环游地球一圈半。保护主义的代价是昂贵的，它令物价高涨。WTO全球体系通过谈判来降低贸易壁垒并运用非歧视原则。随着生产成本的降低，（因为有些进口原料便宜多了），成品和服务的价格降低，费用也随之减少。现在有大量的研究表明保护主义和自由贸易带来的效果会有天壤之别。
［2］食品更便宜
对农业实行保护措施时，食品的成本就要增加——据估计，在欧盟国家里，一个四口之家要在食品消费上平均每年多支出1 500美元；在日本，这相当于在食品上多征了51%的税；在美国，相当于为保护本国的制糖业，每年消费者的日用品账单上多出的30亿美元的费用。农业贸易改革的谈判是一件繁琐的事情，各国政府仍在为农业政策在食品安全和环保中所起的作用而争论不休。WTO的成员们正在努力削减补贴和降低贸易壁垒，两项号称是改革中最顽固的狙击手。2000年，开始了有关农业贸易的新一轮谈判。
［3］服装更便宜
20世纪80年代后期，由于限制进口和高进口关税的综合影响，美国的纺织品和服装的价格上涨了58%。同样是因为这些限制，英国的消费者在服装上，每年估计要多支出5亿英镑，加拿大则是7.8亿加元左右。假设澳大利亚政府没有在20世纪80年代末和90年代初削减进口关税，那么每个家庭要多支出300澳元。纺织品和服装品贸易正在WTO的框架下进行重大的改革，这场改革将在2005年完成。改革程序中包括废除对进口产品数量上的限制。经济学家估算，如果关税也被取消，那么全球将获利230亿美元，其中，美国123亿美元，加拿大8亿美元，欧盟22亿美元，发展中国家大约80亿美元。
［4］其他商品
20世纪80年代早期，由于美国限制对日本年的进口，汽车的价格在1981年到1984年间上涨了41%，几乎是其他消费品平均上涨幅度的2倍。该举措原打算保护国内就业率，结果由于汽车价格过高使得汽车销售量锐减100万辆，最后导致了更多的失业。法国类似的进口限制使本国的车价上涨了33%。电视、收音机、录像机等产品在保护政策下无论是过去还是现在都会更加昂贵。
［5］还有服务业
电话服务业的开放，使得花费更便宜了，把通货膨胀的影响考虑进去，在20世纪90年代的发展中国家，通话费以年平均4%的速度下降，而在工业化国家下降速度也达到了2%。在中国，第二大移动电话公司（中国联通）参与竞争，电话费平均下降了30%；在加纳，降幅达50%。有时候，服务业收费的下降，与商品贸易壁垒的降低有关。当欧盟消除内部贸易壁垒，建立统一市场后，电信设备的成本在过去10年里，以年均7%的速度下降，至今这种趋势还在继续。WTO的这一体制存在了50年，其间，有八次重大的贸易谈判回合。目前的贸易壁垒是现代贸易史上的最低点，它们还在继续下降，我们也将不断受益。
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