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跨文化交际的特征

时间:2023-04-01 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:第一章 跨文化交际课程的必要性The Necessity of Cross-cultural Communication Course第一节 跨文化交际定义“跨文化交际”的英语名称是“cross-cultural communication”。跨文化交际作为一种行为是不同语言、不同文化、不同社会心理和不同社会环境之间人与人的交际。假如一个中国人与一个美国人对中美文化怀有各自的认同感,而又缺少跨文化交际知识,那么两人在交际中难免会不时出现矛盾。这习惯增加了跨文化交际的难度。

第一章 跨文化交际课程的必要性The Necessity of Cross-cultural Communication Course

第一节 跨文化交际定义

“跨文化交际”的英语名称是“cross-cultural communication(或inter-cultural communication)”。它是指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际,也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。通俗来说就是如果你和外国人打交道,由于存在语言和文化背景的差异,应该注意什么问题,应该如何得体地去交流。

由于交际双方存在语言和文化背景的差异:文化背景不同、社会环境与背景各异、思维方式和交际方式有别,因此会对同一词、同一句话、非语言行为和事物产生不同的理解、不同的联想和不同的所指意义。

美国学者Larry等人把跨文化交际定义为“文化知觉和符号系统的不同足以改变交际事件中的人们之间的交际(Larry,l996)”,而我国学者贾玉新、关世杰等人则将其分别表述为:“跨文化交际是指不同文化背景的人们(信息发出者和信息接受者)之间的交际。从心理学的角度讲,信息的编、译码是由来自不同文化背景的人所进行的”(贾玉新,1997)和“一种文化背景的人、群体与另一种文化背景的人、群体进行的交流”(关世杰,1996)。跨文化交际作为一种行为是不同语言、不同文化、不同社会心理和不同社会环境之间人与人的交际。跨文化交际一般是通过两种行为完成的:一个是语言行为,另一个是非语言行为。语言行为是文化交际最重要的方式,它是指跨文化交际的参与者通过语言信息实现交际的目的,而非语言交际行为主要是通过行动、空间、时间或沉默来传递文化交流的信息。每个民族都生活在特定的自然地理环境之中,具有各自的历史背景和文化传统,因而也形成了各自的思维方式。民族的思维方式,既有民族性,也有时代性、区域性和社会性。长久生活在不同区域的人,具有不同的文化特征,因而也形成不同的思维方式。东方和西方属于两大不同的文化体系,因而形成两大类型的思维方式。如果交际的双方不了解或是违背了这些文化规约,常常会导致懊悔不已,大发雷霆,甚至大动干戈。

随着我国与世界各国在经济和科技领域合作的增多,跨文化交际日趋频繁,由文化差异导致的误解在人们的生活和工作中经常发生,因此学习跨文化交际课程非常重要。

2012年2月19日在美联航飞机上发生了一件事:一对中国游客夫妇被美国空姐赶下飞机。事由是行李放置违规,且不听从空姐指挥,争吵过程中这对夫妇叫空姐“shut up”,冒犯了空乘人员被机组人员赶下飞机。这件事中国人看来觉得很奇怪,“shut up”不就是“闭嘴”吗?况且中国人认为乘客是上帝,就因为这句话将乘客赶下飞机是不是有点小题大做?很多中国人从小就开始学习英语,但由于中西文化差异,中国人有时使用英语时并非发音不准,而是用错场合、用错语境、用错语调等,让西方人莫名其妙,产生误会。在飞机上,中国人对空姐说“shut up”,可能觉得就是“闭嘴或是别说了”的意思,但对西方人来说如同骂人。中国人学英语,对有些词句经常只知道意思,但对在什么场合使用或者是否礼貌并不清楚。美国空姐赶中国乘客下飞机只是中美文化冲突的一个小例子。所以学习语言的同时,还要认真学习不同国家、不同民族的文化,这样到了国外才会避免许多想象不到的误会和矛盾。

第二节 跨文化交际的特征

文化是人类在特定的环境里,经过长时间的历史累积,在群体中形成的,所以文化是一种社会现象,而非个人现象。假如一个中国人与一个美国人对中美文化怀有各自的认同感,而又缺少跨文化交际知识,那么两人在交际中难免会不时出现矛盾。例如,在中国的酒席上,主宾之间、宾客之间不断劝酒是表示一种敬意,有时几乎是强迫他人满杯一干而尽,受劝者若是不从,好像是不给劝酒者脸面。可在英美酒席上,主人绝对不勉强客人喝酒,完全是“主从客便”。

没有人生来就对本民族文化具有认同感。一个人一出生便置身于一定的社会文化圈里,耳濡目染,潜移默化,不知不觉地具备了一定的文化素养,其言谈举止自然而然地打上了本民族文化的烙印。到了一定的年龄,大多数人对本民族文化的交际行为已习惯成自然。这习惯增加了跨文化交际的难度。例如,在日常生活中,我们经常会受到别人的赞扬,只要说声“谢谢”就可以了,但中国人遇到这种情况往往显得局促不安,不知如何回答,或是自谦一番。外来民族的交际习惯对我们来说,宛如身体某部位的异物有一种本能的排他性,如果置身于一个崭新的文化氛围中,“入乡随俗”也不是一件容易的事。

在跨文化交际实践中,“文化错误”(cultural mistakes)要比语言错误(linguistic mistakes)严重得多,因为语言错误多是言不达意,无法把心里想说的东西清楚地表达出来,而文化错误往往使本族人与异族人之间产生严重误会甚至敌意(illfeeling)。

第三节 培养跨文化交际能力的必要性

高职高专层次教育是国家教育事业的一个重要部分,它肩负着为国家培养一线技能型人才的重任。因此,除了学习专业技能,还应该顺应时代,掌握必要的国际交际能力。由于中西方不同的文化背景,两种文化的人们在思想观念和礼貌方面也表现出一定的差异,他们在交往中采取的礼貌策略也不尽相同。顾曰国根据《礼记·曲礼》内容得出,“中国式礼貌的一大特点”是“贬己尊人”,中国人用“礼”来约束自己的礼貌行为,不管做什么,不做什么,都要考虑自己的社会身份和地位,以免“失礼”。同时,中国人注重“面子”,“面子”与“礼”也有着必然的联系,因为“面子”反映的是社会角色,体现了等级和权势的高低。再如在对恭维语的回答方面,中国人的表现是谦虚、内敛,而西方人却大胆地接受并且致谢。在与外国友人交际中,我们要避免以自己本土的礼貌、礼节来评判对方,切莫把自己已经习惯了的礼貌、礼节生搬硬套到对方身上,那样只会导致交际的失败。

在美国,一个男孩看到喜欢的女孩会大胆、坦诚地盯着对方看,认为这是表达情感的正当方式,而女孩也不会认为男孩子无礼或是不道德。相反,在中国,如果一个男孩子盯着一个女孩子看,会被认为是非常没有礼貌或是居心不良。

中西方在人际交往的方式上有着明显的差别,如中国人热情好客,在人际交往中饱含热情,嘘寒问暖,似乎没有什么可保留的,对于了解有关年龄、职业、收入、婚姻状况、子女等问题,觉得都理所当然。而在西方国家中,人们特别重视对方的隐私权。个人隐私主要包括:个人状况(年龄、工作、收入、婚姻、子女等)、政治观念(支持或反对何种党派)、宗教信仰(信仰什么宗教)、个人行为动向(去何种地方,与谁交往、通信)等。凡是涉及个人隐私的都不能直接过问。中国人的空间距离相对较近,而中国人又会觉得西方人过于冷淡、傲慢,过分疏远。

中国人与英语国家的人表达问候的方式有明显差异。中国人见面打招呼时经常说:“吃了吗?上哪儿去?”其实这在英语文化中并不是问候,而是真正的问题。英美人问候多用“Good morning!”、“Hi”、“Hello”等,与此同时,人们常用谈论天气的方式来寒暄。高职学生在和外国留学生或外籍教师的交流中,如不了解这些文化差异将直接影响交际质量,构成跨文化交际失误,引起误会、不快,甚至是冲突。

目前,大学生跨文化交际能力的现状是:听不懂、说不出、语用失误、文化知识匮乏、不敢交际、交际失败。所以学习跨文化交际就是要提高大学生的语言能力、交际能力和综合文化能力。语言能力是交际能力的根基,没有一定的交际能力,语言能力只是一根放置于屋角的拐杖,综合文化能力是交际能力的重要组成部分。因此,培养高职学生的跨文化交际能力是很有必要的。

Case 1

Professor Johnson was invited to give a guest lecture at a Chinese university in the early 1990s. All that he could tell the students was very attentive. They applauded warmly when the lecture came to an end. However, Professor Johnson was disappointed when no one asked any questions, even after they were encouraged to do so. In fact, most students avoided eye contact with him as he tried to communicate with them.

分析:以上这个案例牵涉到几个问题:第一点,关于中西方教育方式不同的问题。在美国,传统的教育方法是 trial and error。也就是说你自己通过反复的实验,反复的犯错误,于是终于明白了真理是什么。这种情况下往往要求学生有很大的学习自主性,而老师的主要任务就是解答而不是灌输,所以美国人喜欢问问题,美国教师也喜欢被问。而在我国,教育方式是watch and learn。也就是老师告诉你是什么,然后你记住就好了。这就是中国学生学习被动的原因之一。第二点,关于power distance的问题。在美国强调的是人人平等,老师和学生之间亦然,所以课堂上学生可以很随意的打断教师的授课,甚至当着同学的面对教师所讲内容表示怀疑。而在我国的传统里,教师是有着一定社会地位的职业。教师代表着权威,代表着经验。“一日为师,终身为父”这样的说法更体现了中国人对教师的敬重,所以学生是把教师放在比自己高一个社会等级的位置。于是,人们很少质疑教师的权威,这也是中国学生不喜欢当堂问问题的原因之一。如果真有问题,往往会私下问,这样给老师也留有一定的余地,最大限度地保证了没有冲突发生。毕竟在集体主义文化里和谐是第一位的。第三点,眼神交流。在美国个人主义文化里,和别人说话的时候要正视对方的眼睛,这是一种自信的表现,因为在他们的文化里,谦虚不是美德。而正视别人眼睛也是对他人的尊重。而在东方,避免眼神交流才是尊重,这一点在日本文化里尤为明显。和自己的长辈、上级说话的时候往往是低着头的。

Case 2

One cold winter day in a Chinese city, on the way to the library, Wang Lin met an American professor who knew very little about China. After greeting him, Wang said: “It’s rather cold. You’d better put on more clothes.” But the professor didn’t appear happy on hearing this.

分析:美国人以及大部分西方国家的人们不喜欢被告知要怎么做,他们比较喜欢独立,然而中国人则习惯关心别人,这个案例中王林表达的建议就是一种对他人的关心,可是美国教授却不习惯这样的表达。

Case 3

An American went to a Chinese home. He was offered some tea. Just when the first cup was about to finish, more tea was added. The visitor drank the second cup. Then the cup was filled the third time. Then he drank it, then… until the visitor was quite full. Why?

分析:在中国的传统文化习俗里,主人通常会不断给客人斟茶倒水,或者不断地给客人的盘子里加食物以表示他的热情好客。面对这样的情况,中国客人知道如何处理,在他们觉得吃饱喝足之后,就会随它放在桌上。而美国客人就不懂了,在美国,杯子里和盘子里剩下茶水或是食物是不礼貌的,于是,出于对美国文化理念的遵循,美国人可能会在这样的招待中喝得过多、吃得过多。

练 习 题

— Exercises —

一、选择题

1. If you don’t like the talk going on, you may say:_______.

a. “So much for today”

b. “Let’s stop today”

c. “Well, it’s going late. I think we can continue the discussion next time”

2. To show your disagreement, it is informal to say:_______.

a. I can’t go along with your view

b. I’m afraid I can’t agree with you

c. No, I don’t think so

3. In public, when a smoker says to you, “Would you mind if I smoke?” You may answer:_______.

a. “Yes, please”  b. “No, please”  c. “It’s up to you”

4. At a friend’s home in England, a Chinese student gives a birthday present to her English friend.

Mary: “Thank you. It’s beautiful.”

Xiao Zhao:_______.

a. “Really? Do you like it?”

b. “Don’t mention it. It’s only a small thing.”

c. “I’m glad you like it.”

5. In English which of the following is true?

a. The Surname comes first, followed by the given name.

b. The given name comes first, followed by the Surname.

c. The Surname comes first, followed by the family name.

6. Suppose you are asked to make a speech, you should address the listeners as_______ .

a. “Ladies and Gentlemen” b. “Mrs. and Mr.”  c. “Comrades and friends”

7. We may call the person who holds the meeting .

a. Mr. Chairman  b. Mr. President  c. Mr. Host

8. In job-seeking, which of the following is true?

a. You should not look the employer in the eye during an interview.

b. Personal appearance is not important for an interview.

c. Do not blame your former employer is a piece of good advice for an employee.

9. Which of the following is true?

a. Three and seven are regarded as unlucky numbers in the West.

b. Three and four are regarded as lucky numbers in the West.

c. Six and seven are regarded as lucky numbers in the West.

10. You’ve been having digestive problems for a week, and have just started to feel better. You meet a British friend at a party. Your friend says, “How are you?” What should you not do?

a. Start talking in detail about your problem.

b. Say, “Fine, thanks. How are you?”

c. Say, “Not bad, thanks. How are you?”

11. You’re visiting an American friend in her new apartment. You like the apartment and you want your friend to know. Which of the following is not proper for you to do?

a. Say nothing, but show your interest by walking around, looking at everything in the apartment.

b. “Gee, this place is really nice.”

c. “I really like your apartment.”

12. You’ve been invited to dinner at a friend’s home. You’re about to sit down to eat, but you want to use the toilet first. What is not proper for you to say?

a. “Excuse me. Where is the toilet?”

b. “Could I wash my hands before dinner?”

c. “Do you mind if I use the bathroom?”

13. You are a guest in a British or American friend’s home. Your friend asks if you would like something to drink. You really would like a drink. What would you say?

a. “Yes, that would be lovely.

b. “No, thank you.” And wait for your friend to ask you again.

c. “That’s OK. I can get it myself.”

14. You’ve just been introduced to a British or American friend’s parents. What would you say?

a. “Hello” and bow.

b. Say nothing and shake hands.

c. “Nice to meet you” and shake hands.

15. Most young people in the US start dating around the age of_______ .

a. 12      b. 16      c. 18

二、案例分析

Two men meet on a plane from Tokyo to Hong Kong. Chu Hon-fei is a Hong Kong exporter who is returning from a business trip to Japan. Andrew Richardson is an American buyer on his first business trip to Hong Kong. It is a convenient meeting for them because Mr. Chu’s company sells some of the products that Mr. Richardson has come to Hong Kong to buy. After a bit of conversation they introduce themselves to each other.

Mr. Richardson: By the way, I’m Andrew Richardson. My friends call me Andy. This is my business card.

Mr. Chu: I’m David Chu. Pleased to meet you, Mr. Richardson. This is my card.

Mr. Richardson: No, no. Call me Andy. I think we’ll be doing a lot of business together.

Mr. Chu: Yes, I hope so.

Mr. Richardson (reading Mr. Chu’s card ): Chu, Hon-fei. Hon-fei, I’ll give you a call tomorrow as soon as I get settled at my hotel.

Mr Chu (smiling): Yes, I’ll expect your call.

When these two men separate, they leave each other with very different impressions of the situation. Mr. Richardson is very pleased to have made the acquaintance of Mr. Chu and feels they have gotten off to a very good start. They have established their relationship on a first-name basis and Mr. Chu’s smile seems to indicate that he will be friendly and easy to do business with Mr. Richardson. Mr. Richardson is very particularly pleased that he has treated Mr. Chu with respect for his Chinese background by calling him Hon-fei rather than his western name, David, which seems to him an unnecessary imposition of western culture.

In contrast, Mr. Chu feels quite uncomfortable with Mr. Richardson. He feels it will be difficult to work with him, and that Mr. Richardson might be rather insensitive to cultural differences. He is particularly bothered that Mr. Richardson used his given name, Hon-fei, instead of either David or Mr. Chu.

How do you account for their different impressions? Does culture play a role in the communication between these two men?

三、讨论题

1. 为什么要学习跨文化交际课程?

2. 如何提高跨文化交际能力?

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