日常英语会话语篇中的次词语
现代语言学要求研究人们真实生活中的语言。“超越句子结构的局限”,“把语言看作一种源泉”,“把语篇视为研究语言的基本出发点”(韩礼德)。从这个观点出发,我们先看一段两位美国大学生的对话:
A:I thought I’d go to summer school and then transfer after that.That ought to be all kinds of fun.
B:What do you want to go into?
A:Well uh I have been told all my life that I’m going to med school.
B:Oh,by your parents.
A:Yeah and my relatives you know.Oh,yeah.That’s the problem I went through a big period of decision.Um the decision was between what I should do and what I wanted to do...So.It came out you know a big philosophical thing.
可以看出,这一日常会话语篇中的well uh,oh,yeah,you know,oh yeah,um,so传递了一定的信息,但本身没有多少意义;它们有语篇功能,但与句子结构无多大关联;它们客观存在,但不大被人重视。这类词语通常被认为是粗制之作、细枝末节。因此,有的语言学者(Andersson &Trudgill,1990)称之为次词语(small words)。那么,究竟哪些是次词语?它们在日常会话中的存在程度如何?功能意义何在?单位特征怎样?本文试图就这些问题作一肤浅探讨。
一、词语范畴
一般说来,次词语可分为下列几类:
1.踌躇词语(hesitation sounds)。日常会话不同于书面表达,书写时,通常有时间筹划思想、组织内容、考虑用词。会话时,没有时间做到这一点,而是边想边说、边说边想,其中,思考下文时,可能会出现支吾现象,说出踌躇词语,用以填补话语空档。这类词语有er,huh,hum,mhm,mm,now,or,uh,uh-huh,um,well等。
2.笨拙词语(fumbles)。这类词语有kind of,like,listen,look,remember,sort of,you know,y’know(=you know)。
3.某些礼貌与情感词语(politeness elements and exclamatory elements)。这些词语是会话双方出于礼貌、表示态度、表达情感说出的词语,有ah,aha,damn it,fine,for God’s sake,good,great,gosh,oh,oh dear,ok,ooh,ouch,ow,right,super,ugh,well,wow,yeah,yes等。
这三类词语中有些(如kind of,like,listen,look,sort of,well,you know等)在许多场合并不是与句子结构无关连的次词语,而是在句中具有一定句法功能的形容词、副词、名词、动词等。试比较:
That’s just the sort of thing I want.(构成名词词组,作主语补足语)
I sort of thought you might say that.(次词语)
She looks very well.(形容词,作主补)
They speak well of him at school.(副词,作状语)
This is well water.(名词,作名词water的修饰语)
Oh well we could’ve asked him.(次词语)
I don’t like him to be unhappy.谓语动词
You must do it like this.(介词,与this构成介词词组作状语)
Yeah like uh George Washington was a president of the United States.(次词语)
You know how to swim,don’t you?(主谓结构)
And they talked freely about you know this racial problem.(次词语)
二、存在程度
大概因为这类词语不登大雅之堂,不足为训,所以我们所接触的英语语篇中,次词语很少出现,甚至根本不出现。但是,在英美本族人士的日常会话中,它们频繁出现。笔者在美进修期间,从电视、电话、人们的交谈中,常常听到这类次词语。这里选几段为证。
1.来自电视,两位成年人在办公室的谈话。
A:What’d you have in high school?
B:I had Spanish too.They got a crazy thing about the um credits.
A:Yeah uh huh.
B:They sometimes gave you credit for something and sometimes they didn’t and sometimes they told you well they didn’t later on.
2.来自两位大学生在房间的交谈。
A:I have a problem sometimes in writing.Uh y’know I sometimes I can really write in my English classes and then other times I get a teacher that I just can’t produce for y’know.
B:Um I think you don’t put everything into it because you aren’t interested.Where like in journalism would you be like a newspaper or uh advertising?
3.来自电话。
“Well I wanted to be a teacher.But I didn’t know for sure I like languages.But I really didn’t know you know what I wanted to do.Not for sure.”
在真实生活的日常会话中,类似语篇举不胜举。有的语言学家认为,如果日常会话中没有次词语,听起来会感到不自然。其最好的证明是电话交谈,在听对方较长的叙说时,自己每隔数秒钟,甚至一两秒钟就会发出hmm,yeah,ok,right,oh dear这类词语。
在真实生活的日常会话中,谈话双方不是在听对方的话语是否合乎语法规则,而是在注意对方说了什么;不是在注意自己的话语怎么才符合语法规则,而是在思考要表达什么。为此,构成了表示相对完整思想的语篇。在这种语篇中,为使双方自然地轮次、继续或中止,为使内容达意、表情,不可避免会出现上述次词语。美国语言学家Lawrence Schourup说:“次词语就像泡泡(bubbles),不断从讲话者的主观世界进入讲话者与听话者构成的共同世界。”
三、功能意义
次词语在日常会话语篇中有积极的价值,有隐藏的奥妙;它们充当成分,扮演角色,有时甚至举足轻重。按照韩礼德的功能语法学说,次词语有语篇功能、人际功能,有的还会有概念功能。
1.语篇功能。在语义单位里,把语言成分组织成为语篇的功能叫做语篇功能,它包括主-述位系统、信息结构系统、衔接系统。次词语的语篇功能体现在以下几方面。
1在主述位系统中它们是
(1)复项主位中的连续成分。例如:(T=Theme,R=Rheme)
Well then you(T)//can talk to them.
Uh you know I(T)//can really write in my English classes.
(2)复项主位中表情态意义的人际成分。例如:
Aha this book(T)//is exactly what I want.
Great,we(T)//all have passed.
(3)述位部分的插入成分。例如:
Somebody//wanted me to uh sign a petition for Synanon(R).
It//is good for anyone to know it I mean(R).
(4)零句。例如:
A:But I have to stop before I hit the sand because this would stop it anyway.
B:Yeah.
A:Where was this,what country,what city or state?
B:Uh Arizona.
A:Arizona.
B:Uh huh.
2)在信息结构系统中,它们可能会传递根据语境可以推断的、言语活动中已出现的已知信息。例如:
(1)A:You know where the police station is.
B:Yeah.
(2)A:Right now they’re ten,twelve and fifteen.
B:Um hum.
句(1)、(2)中的yeah与um hum分别传递了I know where the police station is与Right now they’re ten,twelve and fifteen的已知信息
3)在衔接系统中,它们是:
(1)连接手段。意义上的连接或时间上的连接。
①意义上的连接。例如:
OK,let’s look at Turkey during the middle ages.
这里的OK表示上文的结束,并引导下文的开始。
Nice weather,isn’t it?
讲这话者完全清楚天气的情况。这里的附加问句不是通常意义上的附加问句,它示意听话者同意这一看法,并接下去说点什么,次词语isn’t it起到了连接下文的作用。再如:
You didn’t feel so good yesterday;well,how are you this morning?
Thank you for welcoming me here;now the subject of my talk is...
How old were you then?Oh,how long had you been there?
这里三句中的well,now,oh无疑起到了承上启下的连接作用。
这种意义上的连接可以表示因果、转折、递进、例证、条件等关系。
I’ve been looking forward to this meeting for months.Why then,how shall we spend the evening?(因果关系)
You didn’t feel so good yesterday;well how are you this morning?(转折关系)
You ever watched Stu Erwin on T V about ten years ago.Well he was the principal of a school.(递进关系)
Then I started reading some books um detective stories.(例证关系)
A:She’s eighteen.She’ll probably be a buyer in a year now.
B Yeah that’s good.条件关系
②时间上的连接。
会话一般都是即兴的,会话的双方边思维边叙述,因而有时难免会产生不能立刻想出下文内容、不知用什么词语来表达的情况,这时会不自觉地说出次词语,以争取时间连接上下文。例如:
On a tree.Carbon isn’t going to do much for a tree really.Really.The only thing it can do is collect moisture you know.Which may be good for it?In other words I mean in the desert you have the carbon granules which would collect moisture on top of them.Yeah.It doesn’t help the tree but protects the moisture in.Uh hum.Because then it just soaks up moisture.It works by the water molecules,like,adhere to the carbon molecules that are in the ashes.It holds it on you know.And the plant takes it away from there.
(2)替代手段。例如:
A:How was your grammar school days?Where did you go to grammar school?
B:Uh,Beverly Vista.
A:...I have been told all my life that I’m going to med school.
B:Oh by your parents.
A:Yeah and my relatives...
上述中的uh,oh,yeah分别替代了I went to grammar school,you have been told,I have been told by my parents.
2.人际功能。在日常会话中,参与在语境中的讲话者会利用某些次词语来反映一定的人际关系,或是表示态度并试图影响听话者,或是作出推断要求听话者有某种反应,这是功能语法学中人际功能的意义之一。例如:
1 I forgot the books.
(2)Oh,I forgot the books.
(3)Damn it,I forgot the books.
句(1)仅表达了“我忘了带书”的意义;句(2)不仅表达了句(1)的意义,其中的次词语oh表达了讲话者刚刚想起或刚刚意识到“忘了带书”这样的意义;句(3)不仅表达了句(1)的意义,次词语damn it既表示讲话者头脑里是怎么思考“忘了带书”这件事的,又表示了听话者会怎样接受这样的话语、怎样对这句话语起反应。
又如:
A:You didn’t go to the party.But this is a neat party you know.Have some potato chips.
B:Yeah oh that is a party.Did everybody go?
A:You know Verna Walker.
B:Yes,I used to.I knew her in school.I don’t know her now.
这两句中的yeah与yes不是用来回答问句,也不是用来表示讲话者完全同意对方,而是用来表达讲话者听懂、理解了对方话语这样的意义。yes与yeah次词语通常表达这种意义。有时,会有“yes,but...”的话语,这表示讲话者对对方刚说的话有些不同看法。例如:
Yes,but I still do not think it is a good idea to have an alligator in the bathtub.
再举两例:
It’s,y’know,sort of,kind of good.
句中的sort of,kind of(次词语)明显传递了讲话者不敢肯定自己观点的意义。
Ah,this is the way to do it.
句中的Ah显然是表示了I just realized的意义。
还有很多次词语表达的意义难以一一举例说明但可归纳为以下几种。
1)理解、赞同对方(I’ve got you.):yes,yeah,hm,uh,I see,right,ok等。例如:
Yes,on the other hand,it’s rather expensive.
Uh,what are you going to study there?
2)情感反应对方(This is how I feel towards your message.):oh,ah,really,sort of,kind of,oh dear,great,super,damn it,well。例如:
Oh dear,I’m coming right away.
Well that should be such an interesting subject.
3)要求对方继续(Go on speaking;I’m following.):yes,yeah,hm,oh,good,fine,really,good heavens等。例如:
A:Hm yeah.
B:And we were working with that thing for two weeks.
4)要求对方同意(Please be agreeable to my message.):I mean,y’know,you know,you see等。例如:
Well,I mean John,in fact,I’m rather busy at the moment.
And so I think I’d like you see to help other kids too.
5)要求对方倾听:look,well,now,ok,listen,the point is,just a minute,wait a second。例如:
Well,all right then,listen,we’ll go down to the pub and talk to him tonight.
Now look here,you can’t say things like that to me!
6)要求对方表达:tag questions,right,ok,all right,remember,eh。例如:
Cost the earth,wouldn’t it?
Physics is a course that works on formulas.Right?
3.概念功能功能语法学说中的概念功能指的是反映主客观世界中所发生的事,所牵涉的人或物,所谈及的时间、地点等,根据这个定义,次词语通常没有概念功能,但当它们身为“零句”出现、作为“替代”手段时,“概念功能”则隐含其中。例如:
A:You know Mike Pliance.
B:Yeah,um hum.
这里的Yeah,um hum隐含:所发生的事(心理过程)是“我认识Mike Pliance”,所牵涉的人是“我”与“Mike Pliance”,所谈及的时间是现在时间。
A:So you’re going to Hawaii.
B:Um hum.
这里的Um hum隐含:所发生的事(物质过程)是“我打算去夏威夷”,所牵涉的人是“我”,所谈及的时间是将来,所谈及的地点是夏威夷。
四、单位特征
在英语级阶的词素、词、词组、小句、句等五个单位里,次词语多数属于词,少数几个属于词组;在语篇的语义单位里,次词语是词组或“零句”式的小句。这种词、词组、小句有别于其他词、词组、小句。它们的特征是:
1.是个非连续体,其精密阶不可变化,每项不可扩大,不可缩小。
2.该系统中的许多项在选择过程中相互排斥性不大,可能会两者或更多者同时进入同一结构。例如:
So uh then of course I became father confessor to my friends.
...because he’s always you know um spouting off in class.
3.次词语作为语段没有大小之分先后之别几乎可以出现在句中任何一个位置。例如:
Uh what are you going to study there?(句首)
He’s,I mean,a sort of good teacher.(句中)
You’re just kind of stick with a couple you know.(句末)
4.起类似副词、感叹词的作用。其中有些如listen,look等像动词词组,但失去了动词词组的特征,没有形式的变化,没有主语,不能带宾语、状语、补语;有些如you know,I mean等像小句,但失去了小句的特征,没有主谓之分,不能划主位、述位,不带述位分项。试比较:
You(T)//know what I mean(R).(小句复合体)
You(T)//know a lot of things(R).(小句)
So I you know I(T)//know nothing(R).(小句,you know是次词语)
五、结束语
次词语在普通英美人士的日常会话中屡见不鲜。它是语言源泉中的一部分,是语篇结构中的一成分。不过,它毕竟是次等,毕竟是“随从”。在日常会话的语篇中,次等与优等、“随从”与“嘉宾”是个辩证统一体。次词语的使用情况因语域、因人而异。会话的语域越随便、会话者之间的关系越亲密,使用次词语的频率越高;会话者的文化修养越好,使用次词语的频率越小。有时次词语的使用并非恰到好处,甚至用得赘、滥,这样的次词语在语篇中应避弃。下面是典型的一例:
I mean,I mean she’s so little.I mean you,you know,sort of one can imagine a sort of middle-aged woman with a coat that seemed you know,sort of just slightly exaggerated her form.You know I mean she could sort of slip things inside pockets.
参考文献
[1]Andersson,L.and P.Trudgill.Bad Language[M].Oxford:Basil Blackwell,1990.
[2]Halliday,M.A.K.An Introduction to Functional Grammar[M].London:Edward Arnold,1985.
[3]Schourup,L.Common discourse particles in English conversation[J].Working Papers in Linguistics,No.28,Ohio State University.
[4]胡壮麟、朱永生、张德禄编著.系统功能语法概论[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1987.
[5]胡壮麟主编.语言系统与功能[M].北京:北京大学出版社,1990.
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