对英语语法的增补

CaGEL对英语语法的增补

1985年与1999年英国朗文公司出版的A Comprehensive Grammar o f the English Language（简称CoGEL）与Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English（简称LGSWE）使我们对传统英语语法有不少新认识。2002年英国剑桥大学出版社出版的The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language（简称CaGEL）使我们对英语语法再次产生新认识，使我们看到了英语语法的最新发展。这部语法颇具特色，与以前的英语语法（主要指参考文献中的［1］、［2］、［3］、［4］、［11］）相比，变化不小。就其语法规则而言，它对语法形式、意义与功能的描写和解释更丰富、更具体、更详细，其中有以前语法中没有涉及的内容，有对以前语法阐述不足处进行补充的内容，有与以前语法观点不同的内容。限于篇幅，本文仅谈谈以前语法中没有涉及的内容，它们反映于多个语法范畴与结构。（下列打“＊”号者表示不合语法，打“？”号者表示接受程度有限。）

1.名词与限定词

1）cattle，livestock，police，poultry与vermin这类仅表复数概念的名词不能被小数字的数词限定，但能被大整数数词限定:a thousand cattle/＊seven cattle（须seven head of cattle），two hundred police/＊four police（须four policemen或four police officers）。

2）a lot of，a group of，a number of，a dozen of等结构后的名词有零冠词与定冠词（如，a lot of（the）delegates，a lot of the money a group of the students a number of the protesters，a dozen of（the）spiders）的区别:有定冠词，表示这名词所示量中的部分——“许多”、“一组”、“一些”、“一打”等；用零冠词，没有“部分”的意义，仅表示这名词的量，这时它们三位一体构成了数量词（quantifier）。

3）基数词hundred，thousand，million可以出现在“具体数词＋hundred/thousand/million＋of＋带有限定词的复数名词”的结构中，如，three hundred of these voters，这表示of后名词所示量中的多少百、多少千、多少百万。

4）乐器名词（如，piano，violin等）在动词后（除play外）作宾语表示某一专业时，定冠词可有可无:Wolfang is studying（the）piano at the Royal College.

5）we与you（复数）可视为限定词限定复数名词，似中位限定词the，其前可出现前位限定词all:All we supporters of a federal Europe will eventually win the argument.（但＊All we will eventually win...错误）/All you students should form a society.（但＊All you should form...错误）CaGEL还谈了人称代词为名词的限定词与人称代词和名词为同位结构的区别:为限定词时，只能是第一、二人称代词复数；为同位结构时，没有这个限制:＊I president declare the meeting open错误，但I，the president，declare the meeting open正确；＊You proponent of a federal Europe should support the proposal错误，但You，the proponent of a federal Europe should support...正确；＊They poets are our guides错误，但They，the poets，are our guides正确。

6）英语中有较复杂的词组属格:the man she was speaking to’s reaction，a guy I know’s house，？the head of the newly formed Asian Studies Department’s speech，？the man she and her friend had been complaining to’s reaction。但CaGEL同时说，词组属格中的词组越复杂其接受程度越差所以后两例打上了号，表示有些本族人难以接受它们。它还说，像the man she and her friend had been complaining to so angrily’s reaction的词组属格，本族人会感到很奇怪。

7）使用形式主语it，把作真实主语的名词词组后置:It’s extraordinary the amount of beer he puts away./It impressed me the way she disarmed him./It’s incredible the things they get up to.CaGEL指出，这后置的名词词组的中心名词都有一关系分句；这种后置不是必定的，也可以不用形式主语it，如，The amount of beer he puts away is extraordinary.

2.代词

1）CaGEL明确指出，在非正式文体中，并列结构中代词格的使用会与单个代词格的使用不同，就像单个代词可与动词be缩略（如，I don’t know if you’re eligible.）而并列结构中的代词却不行（如，＊I don’t know if she and you’re eligible.）一样。在并列结构中代词的格更容易混用。所以，CaGEL不像CoGEL（p.338）与LGSWE（pp.337－338）那样局限并列结构中代词格的混用（这局限是，作主语的宾格大多处在并列结构的首位，作宾语的主格只提及第一人称单数I）。CaGEL所列举的4个宾格代词作主语的例子中（p.462），有3例代词处于末位，如，Tina and me sat by the window...；它所列举的8个主格代词作宾语的例子中（p.463），有4例是除I之外的其他代词，如，There’s a tendency for he and I to clash./They invited the Smiths and we to lunch.CaGEL还指出（pp.9，463），作宾语的I与名词结合成并列结构并处于末位的情况被视为标准英语，被说标准英语的人普遍使用，被广播传媒广泛使用，如，They invited my partner and I to lunch.

2）they与themself作单数使用。（1）they（包括them，their）作单数使用在非正式文体中非常普遍，近年来，随着he作为中性的衰退they越来越被人们接受包括电台电视台比较正式的采访中也是如此，如，The patient should be told at the outset how much they will be required to pay./A friend of mine has asked me to go over and help them with an assignment.（2）如果其先行词是everyone，someone等不定代词，那they（包括them，their）作单数使用被认为是中性文体。（3）themself作为单数的用法自20世纪70年代以来在少部分人的标准方言中都能检测到，它的接受程度随they作为单数的接受程度的提高而提高。（4）如果其先行词是由选择连词or或either...or...连接的两个单数名词组成的并列结构，那用they/them/their/themself比用he/him/his/himself/themselves更合适，如，Let me know if your father or your brother change their mind./Either the husband or the wife has perjured themself/？themselves/＊himself.这里，笔者想指出，they（包括them，their）以及themself作单数的用法已编进了The New Ox ford Dictionary of English（1998），该词典明确指出这是一种标准用语。以前的语法书中都没谈到这些内容，但Geoffrey N.Leech 1994年在北外作的一次演讲中谈道，“近来书面语体中出现了一个奇怪的畸形代词——themself”（见《外语教学与研究》1995年第2期的第5页），又说，they与themself作单数的用法主要出现在其先行词是everyone，anyone等不定代词时，同时他怀疑这种用法，说，“它真能被大众接受吗？……要想打进标准英语恐怕不那么容易。”（ibid:7）现在看来，这观点过时了。

3）“指示代词those＋of＋名词词组（包括代词）”的结构，这里的those表示整体中的部分。这种结构存在的条件是，其后必须有一个修饰语（如关系分句、介词词组等），否则结构错误:Those of the above accidents which involve special circumstances...are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7./＊Those of the above accidents are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7./Those of you with a train to catch had better leave now.＊Those of you had better leave now.

3.动词

1）一般过去时表示这样两种将来时间:（1）分句中某个动词所表示的某一将来时间之前，从说话者的现在时间看仍是将来时间，如If she beats him he’ll claim she cheated./If you don’t buy it you will soon regret that you missed such a bargain.这两句中的cheated与missed表示在“will claim”与“will regret”之前，它们仍表示将来时间，并非以现在时间为参照点的过去时间；（2）过去的计划或安排，将来的事态，如Originally entries closed tomorrow，but they’ve decided to allow another week.这句中的closed等于were due to close或were going to close。

2）某些动词进行体的意义。（1）know，matter，own的进行体表示动态的变化过程，表示数量或程度的增大或减少:He claims that fewer and fewer students are knowing how to write English when they come up to university./It is mattering more and more which university you get your degree at./Each year more and more people are owning their own home.（2）类似Between 10 and 11 I was working in the library句中的动词进行体在一定的上下文中也可表示“全部活动”的意义，如A:What did you do yesterday？B:From 9 to 10 I was at the phonology lecture，between 10 and 11 I was working in the library，and then I had a game of squash.（3）类似“She was walking five miles”与“She was writing two novels”的意义:前者表示，步行前“她”已决定步行5英里，讲话者用进行体表示当时她正在走这段路；后者表示当时她在同时进行着两部小说的撰写。

3）现在完成体与确定的过去时间状语连用。这种现在完成体表示到目前为止已经历过的事，尽管动作或过程发生在过去，但与目前有联系消除因这确定的过去时间的存在而仅表示过去的概念。如，We’ve already discussed it yesterday.（我们昨天就已经讨论过了。）

4）假设性过去完成体可以表示这样的意义:（1）讲话者不知道过去某事是否“真”，如，If she had come yesterday he would surely have told her.它可出现在这样的上下文中:I don’t know whether she came yesterday，but I doubt it:if she had come yesterday he would surely have told her.（2）表示与现在或将来的某事不一致，如，I wish they had been here now./I’d rather you had gone tomorrow./If they had gone tomorrow they would have met her son.第一句表示，讲话者希望他们现在已经在这里（但他们现在不在这里）；第二、三句表示，他们不可能明天去，因为他们已经决定明天不去，或他们已经去了，不可能明天再去，或他们已决定其他时候去，而不是明天。这种现在与将来时间的过去完成体表示，已有事实表明某事不可能发生，再如，下列三句都以“我、你、她今天已经来了”的事实为背景:If you had told me you were busy I would have come tomorrow./If you had come tomorrow you would have seen the carnival./I wish she had come tomorrow.

5）有关动词被动态的两点新认识:

（1）在感觉动词（如，see，hear等）后的被动不定式作为宾语补足语时，这被动不定式一定是“get＋V－ed”，不能是“be＋Ved”，如，He saw Kim get/＊be mauled by my brother’s dog.

（2）并非多词动词的“动词＋介词”的被动。先看下列被动的正误。

This bed was slept in by George Washington./＊The river was slept beside.

The valley could be marched through in less than two hours.＊The village hall could be met in.

My new hat has been sat on./＊The roof has been sat on all day.

这种被动成立的条件是，动词的被动对主语产生重要作用或使主语的重要特征发生了变化，否则错误。如第一对的前一句成立是因为这张床被Geoge Washington睡过，这有重要意义。如果说This bed was slept in，则表示这床发生了重要变化（譬如，床被弄得乱七八糟，床单也洗不干净等）。第二对的前一句成立是因为这将近2小时通过的山谷不是一般的山谷，而后一句的不成立是因为大厅用来聚会并没有特别之处。第三对的前一句成立是因为帽子发生了不小的变化，而后一句的屋顶通常不会有什么变化。

6）有关不定式的几点新认识:

（1）在非正式文体中会有不带to的不定式作主语的情况，如Plead mitigating circumstances is all you can do./Seek professional advice is what we should do.这种句式中，补语部分含有动词do。这实际上是主语与补语互换位置所致，因为当主语部分含有动词do时（do是除doing外的各种形式），其不定式补语可以不带to。

（2）在“wh－＋不定式”的结构中，这wh－词（即who，what，which）不能是不定式动词的主语，如，I don’t know who to invite first./＊I don’t know who to go first.当wh－词作主语时，必须用限定从属分句，如I don’t know who will go first.

（3）“wh－＋不定式”不与表示怀疑（disbelief）、惊奇（surprise）、依靠（dependence）意义的词语连用，这时必须用限定从属分句，如I doubt whether I should accept./＊I doubt whether to accept./It was amazing what they offered./＊It was amazing what to offer./It depends on how much I must pay./＊It depends on how much to pay.

4不定式完成体表示的时间可以在主句动词所表示的时间之后，表示将来完成的意义，如I expected him to have finished by six./She wants to have finished it when you return.这时的完成体不定式通常带有表示将来的时间状语（如这两句中的by six与when you return）。

4.介词词组

1）介词词组与形容词结合构成名词的前置修饰成分，如these in some respects highly controversial ideas，his at times very offensive behavior，this in my view quite outrageous suggestion，an on the whole persuasive argument，their to some extent perfectly valid objections。

2）介词词组作动词的宾语。这主要是表示地点和时间的介词词组，如We must prevent under the desk from getting too untidy./We asked where to put it，and the man recommended just above the front door./They won’t consider after Christmas，of course，to be soon enough.这三例的介词词组分别相应于名词词组the area under the desk，the area just above the front door，some time after Christmas。而且，这介词词组能成为被动语态的主语:Under the desk must be prevented from getting too tidy./After Christmas won’t of course be considered to be soon enough.

5.否定

1）“not＋形容词”与“否定前缀＋形容词”意义的异同。这有形容词的可分等级与不可分等级之别，不可分等级形容词的意义相同，可分等级形容词的意义不同，如not available＝unavailable，但not common≠uncommon。not common与uncommon的语义以草图表示为（common与uncommon分别处于两端，“not common”是去除common部分后的其他部分，其中包括uncommon部分

所以“Such mistakes are not common，but they are not uncommon either”的结构成立，这表示“such mistakes”是除两端“common”与“uncommon”外的中间部分。再如Such mistakes are not very common与Such mistakes are very uncommon的区别:very common在右端，比common的范围小，very uncommon在左端，比uncommon的范围小，所以这两句中的“such mistakes”处于上述草图的两端，前者的不到最右端，后者的靠近最左端。

2）not与and/or连用时有这样的理解:在有些情况下，“not...and”理解为否定两者更自然，“not...or”也能理解为仅否定其中之一。如I didn’t like his mother and father./I’m not free on Saturday and Sunday.这两句中的and本族人很自然理解为否定两者，理解为否定其中之一的不多见；He wasn’t at work on Monday or Tuesday.这句通常理解为否定两者，但也可理解否定其中之一，其意是“On Monday or Tuesday（讲话者记不清究竟哪一天）he wasn’t at work.”

3）“not＋持续性动词＋until/till...”的意义。它有两种意义，一种是主句的动作或状态没有持续到“until/till...”的时间；另一种是到“until/till...”的时间才干某事，如，“The family didn’t live in the house until 1990”的意义是:这家人1990年前住在这房子里或这家人到1990年才住进这房子。

6.并列结构

这里谈不同语法范畴的并列。CaGEL给出的并列条件是，在一个句法结构中，如果一个成分X能被相同功能的另一成分Y替代则X与Y可以并列所以成分的并列主要是成分的句法功能相同，而不是成分的语法范畴相同。不同语法范畴成分的并列可以有以下几种情况（仅谈其他语法书中没有出现过的）:

1）限定动词be后的并列可以是形容词词组/介词词组/名词词组与非限定动词的并列:This process is per fectly natural and to be welcomed./He’s in love and behaving quite irrationally./He is known to have a gun and likely to use it.

2）主语补足语的并列可以是形容词词组、名词词组、介词词组互相搭配的并列:It was extremely expensive and in bad taste./He became very forget f ul and an embarrassment to his f amily.

3）其他不同语法范畴的并列最通常的是名词词组（包括代词）与wh－名词分句的并列:The stamp purchases and how the cash f loat was administered were the subject of prolonged questioning yesterday./It lists the value of assets and which partner owned them before the marriage./He was sure of himsel f and where he was going.除此外的并列还有:（1）非限定分句与that－限定分句，如I remembered reading about you in the papers and that you lived here in Wigan.（2）名词词组与that－分句，如They reported a deep division of opinion between the government and the people and that the Af rican population was almost solid in its op position to federation.（3）名词词组与不定式，如I was planning a four－month trip across A f rica and to then return to England.（4）介词词组与that－分句，如They believe in the f all o f man and original sin and that all mankind is descened f rom a single couple.（5）介词词组与不定式，如The University provides a great opportunity for adventures of the mind and to make f riendships that will last a li fetime.（6）名词词组与介词词组如They want to know his financial arrangements in Italy and about the people he met there.（7）既可作介词又可作连词（如after，before）后名词词组与分句的并列，如After their rubber plantation f ailed，and her husband’s death on the Up per Rewa in 1885，she maintained her three young children with a tiny store.

CaGEL同时指出，不同语法范畴的并列有限制:不定式与V－ing不能并列；限定词一般不并列，如不能说my and this book，必须是my book and this book/one，this copy and those比this and those copies更合适；非限定分句与限定分句的并列一定是非限定分句在先。CaGEL还指出，多数情况下，并列成分的句法功能与语法范畴都相同。

7.从属结构

1）关于比较分句的两点新认识:

（1）“more...than...”结构中“than...”的前置:He chose Kim，than whom no one could be more suitable./Than such a slogan，nothing could be more negative./Than whom is he less tolerant？这种情况仅出现在正式文体中。

（2）“the...，the...”结构中后者“the...”的前置并省略“the”:The violence becomes worse the more sanctions bite.（＝The more sanctions bite，the worse the violence becomes.）/He is less likely to agree the more conditions I impose.（＝The more conditions I impose，the less likely he is to agree.）

2）关于关系分句的几点新认识:

（1）关系分句构成问句:She may have her parents with her，in which case where am I going to sleep？/I didn’t get much response from Ed，who seemed rather out of sorts，didn’t he？这种情况仅限于非限制性关系分句。

2形容词＋介词＋关系代词的关系分句The many varieties of mammalian skin secretions perform a wide range of functions，prominent among which is sexual attraction.这是为了达到结构的平衡，如果改成“among which sexual attraction is prominent”，语法正确，但没有前者好。

（3）“不定式或V－ing＋关系代词”的关系分句:Here is Dr.Van Buren，in order to interview whom Phelps says he was prepared to fly to Copenhagen./They take a rigorous examination，passing which confers on the student a virtual guarantee of a place at the university.这种结构出现在非常正式的文体中。

（4）关系分句的先行词是wh－疑问词:Who is there who could help her？/Where can we eat that isn’t too expensive？这种关系分句都后置，与先行词隔开。

（5）嵌入式关系分句中省略作主语的关系代词:I want a car（that）I know is safe.

（6）在“名词词组＋介词＋关系代词”的结构中，“名词词组＋介词”可以后置，如He came up with a strange plan，which I don’t understand the purpose of（＝the purpose of which I don’t understand）.这结构是作分句中动词的宾语，如果作主语，不能这样分开:＊He came up with a strange plan，which the purpose of escapes me.必须是the purpose of which escapes me或of which the purpose...另外，如果这结构中的名词词组是关系代词所表示量中的一部分，也不能这样使用:She hadn’t kept copies of her letters，＊which she’d answered only five of.必须是only five of which she’d answered或of which she’d answered only five。

（7）whom作关系分句的主语。当先行词与关系分句之间有一插入成分（如you think，I said，he thought）时，不少本族人会选择whom作关系分句的主语如those who whom he thought were guilty，而且，这是一种标准英语，常见于优质的报纸与著作。

8.结束语

1）本文所述的有这么几点在属世界名著的“语法”（如参考文献中的［6］、［7］、［10］）中有所体现（因它们国内不流行而没有作为对照本）:1.7）的带关系分句的名词词组的属格在［6］:293中有例，并说，这在口语中很普遍；7.4）中的关系分句在［6］:95中有4例，并说，这时的关系分句是who或that引导；3.2）中的进行体意义在［7］:351－352和［10］:341，343有类似的解释。

2）本文并没穷尽CaGEL中那些以前语法中未谈及的内容，为避免拙文的冗长，有些内容没有阐述，如，“had＋have＋V－ed”的动词形式本族人用得越来越频繁，许多操标准英语的人都会使用。

3）至于CaGEL中对以前语法中不足之处进行补充以及与以前语法观点不同的内容（如，以前的语法认为，并列从属分句作主语并表示两个不同概念时，主句的谓语动词采用复数形式，而CaGEL说，只要谓语部分不是明显表示复数概念，这时的谓语动词仍通常是单数形式）可另文再谈。

参考文献

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