词汇衔接与逻辑联系语

第二节　词汇衔接与逻辑联系语

在第一节中我们已讨论了用于连句成篇的语法语义手段。在这一节中，我们将讨论词汇衔接和逻辑联系语的连接作用以及语法、词汇与逻辑联系语的配合使用问题。

一、词汇衔接

词汇衔接指通过词的重复、同义、反义、上下义、互补、整体与部分等关系来使语篇语义连贯。英语词汇衔接关系通常分为两大类：复现关系和同现关系。

1.词汇的复现关系

复现指的是某一词以原词、同义词、近义词、上义词、下义词、概括词或其他形式重复出现在语篇中，语篇中的句子通过这种复现手段的使用达到了相互衔接。词汇的复现关系可分为四种：①原词复现；②同义词、近义词复现；③上下义词复现；④概括词复现。下面试举例说明：

原词复现：

例1：The two men at the counter read the menu.From the other end of the counter Nick Adams Watched them.

例2：The history of plastics is longer than you might expect.In fact that the first man made plastic ever to appear on the market was made over a hundred years ago.

在例1中，counter一词反复出现提示了事件发生的地点；在例2中plastic一词反复出现突出了文章的中心内容是与plastic有关。这两个例子都利用原词复现手段的使用实现了文章语义的连贯。

同义词、近义词复现：

例3：He got a lot of presents from his friends and family.All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.

例4：Grades are the first concern of most Chinese senior high school students.They work hard to get high marks.

例5：Everything faded into mist.The past was erased，the erasure was forgotten，the lie became truth.

例6：Some students have the false belief that they will make good grades even if they don’t study.But the illusion is，some teachers say，is very harmful to the students’future.

在这里，例3和4是通过使用同义词复现的手法，例5和例6是通过使用近义词复现的手法，既实现了语义的连贯，又避免了重复。在例3中，gifts是presents的同义词，均指礼物。在例4中，grades是marks的同义词，均指分数。在例5中，faded，erased和forgotten是近义词，均表示逝去、忘掉的含义。在例6中，the false belief和the illusion是近义词，均表示错误的想法。

上、下义词复现：

上义词指的是那些表示意义较概括，从含义分类讲更高一类的词，通常其词义包括了下义词的词义。例如，animal是sheep，tiger，wolf，dog等的上义词，sheep，tiger等词则是animal的下义词。下面是几个通过上义词、下义词而形成的复现关系的例子：

例7：Yesterday，a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury.The bird covered the distance in three minutes.

第二句的bird是第一句的pigeon的上义词，这样就出现了上义词复现关系。

例8：Steve and Deborah are both doctors.She is a surgeon...

在这里，surgeon是doctor的下义词，因而就构成了下义词复现关系。又如：

例9：You will need to take some tools with you.You can get a hammer，a saw and a screwdriver from most big department stores.

在这个例子中，hammer，saw和screwdriver都可看做是tool的下义词。

概括词复现：

概括词指的是那些表示一般意义的词。例如，people，man，woman，thing，place，do，make等都是概括词。概括词与其所指的词构成的衔接是通过概括词构成复现关系的。例如：

例10：A：What shall I do with all this crockery？

B：Leave the stuff there; someone will come to put it away.

例11：Can you tell me where to stay in Geneva？I’ve never been to the place.

在这两个例子中，后一句中的概括词（stuff，place）分别和前面的crockery和Geneva构成相互衔接关系。stuff的下义词为crockery，而place的下义词则为Geneva（日内瓦）这个地方。

在有些句组中，某一词的反复出现不但能起到衔接句子的作用，而且能使句组获得一定的文体效果。下面这段关于fog的文字就是一个好例子：

例12：Fog everywhere.Fog up the river，where it flows among green a its and meadows; fog down the river，where it rolls defiled among the tiers of shipping，and the waterside pollutions of a great（and dirty）city.Fog on the Essex marshes，fog on the Kentish heights.Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier-brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships；fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats.Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners，wheezing by the firesides of their wards；fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper，down in his close cabin；fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little prentice boy on deck.Chance people on the bridges peeing over the parapets into a nether sky of fog，with fog all round them...

这是选自英国著名小说家狄更斯的作品“Bleak House”中的一段文字。在这一段里，fog一词共重复出现13次，不仅使得文义连贯、一气呵成，而且极为生动地描述了浓雾弥漫的情景，取得了极好的文体效果。

2.词汇的同现关系

同现关系指的是语篇中语法手段或词汇手段共同出现在同一或临近句子中的现象。在语篇中，围绕着一定的话题，一定的词语就往往会同时出现，而其他一些词语就不大可能出现或根本不会出现。例如，在一篇探讨汉语词的分类的文章中，可以预料会出现“名词”、“动词”、“形容词”、“副词”等词语，但不大可能会出现“叫号电话”、“叫人电话”、“传呼电话”这种词语；但如果文章谈的是有关长途电话的种类，那就会出现“叫号电话”这类词语，而不会出现“名词”这类词语。这种词的同现关系与语篇范围关系密切。词汇的同现关系包括反义关系、互补关系等。例如：

例13：Jane is a good teacher，but she is a bad wife.

例14：In money I’m penniless，but in peace of mind I’m very rich.

在这个例子中，good和bad是一对反义词，因而构成了反义同现。

互补词的互补性指的是非彼即此或非此即彼，所以互补词不同于反义词。反义词的两极之间可以有表示不同程度性质的词语，体现对立的层次性，如hot—cold这对反义词之间可加进warm，tepid，lukewarm，cool等词。互补词在意义上是相互排斥的，如single—married，dead—alive，husband—wife，male—female，man—woman等，互补词之间不能加入其他词。下面是一个通过互补词而形成互补同现的例子：

例15：Discrimination is undoubtedly practised against women in the field of scientific research.We don’t find men complaining that they are not being interviewed for positions that they are clearly qualified to fill.

在这个例子中，两句之间的衔接主要是依靠互补词men和women的对照表现出来的。

例16：John Smith says he feels very sorry for millionaires，who，instead of being masters of their wealth，are slaves of their millions.

在这个例子中，masters和slaves是一对互补词，形成了互补关系。

语言中有些项目的排列是有一定规律的，比如星期一要排在星期二前面，一月要排在二月、三月……十二月前面。这些位于同一序列的词语也可起到衔接句子的作用。例如：

例17：But spring and summer did mot come.Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden，but she did not give any to the Giants.“He is too selfish.”she said.So it was always winter there，and the north wind，the frost and the snow danced among the trees.

在这个例子中，spring，summer，autumn，winter属于同一个序列，因而也是同现关系，也起到了衔接作用。

在语言实践中，人们发现有些在意义上相互联系的词语常常同时出现在同一语篇中，这些词语属于同一个词汇群类，形成了词汇链，因而，当人们遇到其中一个（些）词语时，便会联想到同一词汇群类中的另一些词。如，听（读）到“邮局”时，人们通常会联想到“寄信”、“汇款”、“打电报”、“挂号信”、“邮票”、“包裹”等词语。所以，当一个词汇群的词语出现在一个语篇中时，这些词语就能衔接句子，起着连句成篇的作用。例如：

例18：A great number of high school graduates continue their education in one of the many colleges or universities in the country.After four years，they receive a bachelor’s degree.Some continue studying for a master’s degree and perhaps a doctor’s degree.

这里的话题是高中毕业后的教育，所以出现了这么一个词汇群类：high school，graduates，education，colleges，universities，a bachelor’s degree，studying，a master’s degree，a doctor’s degree.

例19：When you go to the doctor，you like to come away with a prescription.It makes you feel better to know you will get some medicine.But the doctor knows that medicine is not always needed.Some times all a sick person needs is some reassurance that all will be well.In such cases the doctor may prescribe a placebo.

在这段文字里集中出现了一批和医院、疾病相关的词汇（doctor，prescription，medicine，sick，prescribe，placebo），给读者提供了一个看病的背景，突出了这段文字的中心话题。

二、逻辑联系语

逻辑联系语指的是表示各种逻辑意义的句子连接手段。逻辑联系语的功能是表示两个或更多的句子之间的某种逻辑关系，并指出句子是在什么意义上相互联系起来的。逻辑联系语还可用来表明语篇中的各个组成部分之间语义上的联系。

从形式上看，逻辑联系语可以由以下三类语言手段充当：①词语（包括连词和副词），如and，but，for，then，yet，so，therefore，anyway等；②短语，如in addition，as a result，on the contrary，in other words等；③分词独立主格结构或插入语，如considering all that，to conclude，all things considered，that is to say，what is more，what is more important等。

从意义上看，逻辑联系语可以表示很多种不同语义关系，在讨论逻辑联系语时语言学家通常把它们表示的关系分为四大类：增补、转折、原因、时间。在这四大类下面又分出若干小类，例如在“增补”这一大类下，又分出了“增补”（and，and also，furthermore，besides，in addition）、“否定”（nor，and...not）、“选择”（or，or else，alternatively）、“说明”（that is，I mean，in other words）、“示例”（for instance，thus）、“相似”（likewise，similarly，in the same way）、“反意”（on the other hand，by contrast）、“事后补充”（incidentally，by the way）等几个小类。

逻辑联系语表示的语义关系是多样的。下面我们举例说明几类比较常见的逻辑联系语所表示的语义关系。

1.表示列举

列举这一语义关系通常由连接性状语表示，它们对所叙述的事情逐一列举。例如：

例20：I want to give just two pieces of advice.One，there is no reason why he should know about your decision.Two，it would be better if you acted before he finds out.

在这里，one和two表示了列举这一语义关系。能用于表示列举的词语很多，常见的有，first，second，...；first（ly），secondly，...；one，two...；for one thing...（and）for another（thing）；in the first place，first of all，to begin with，to start with，for a start；neat，then，last，finally，in conclusion，last of all，to conclude等。

2.表示增补

增补这一语义关系可以由and，and also，also，too，and...too，furthermore，in addition，besides，moreover，what is more等来表示，例如：

例21：I’m not looking for a job.Furthermore，I am not going to look for a job.

例22：The public can see the paintings next week.What is more，they can buy them for as little as ten dollars upwards.

例23：The house faces north，so it never gets the sun.Also，it is rather damp.

3.表示转折或对比

转折或对比可用still，but，yet，nevertheless，thorough，instead，anyhow，on the contrary，all the same，in fact，at the same time，on the other hand，as a matter of fact，by contrast，while，whereas等词语来表示。

例如：

例24：There will still be difficulties.But they can be overcome.

例25：You weren’t boring me.On the contrary，you’re interesting me frightfully.

例26：He did not show anyone the papers.Instead，as soon as he got a chance，he burnt them.

4.表示解释

解释指的是逻辑联系语引导的分句，对前面已讲到的内容加以澄清、举例说明或进行精确的描述。能表示这一语义关系的有：that is，that is to say，namely，for example，for instance，such as，in other words，to put it another way等。例如：

例27：He is a scholar who is devoted to his research to a reprehensible extent.That is to say，he neglects his family and does not fulfill his responsibilities as a citizen.

例28：It is important that young children should see things，and not merely read about them.For example，it is valuable experience to take them on a trip to a farm.

5.表示等同

等同指的是逻辑联系语所引导的上文和下文所表示的意义相同或相似，或在重要性上差不多。因而，有时也可把这种语义关系称为同位，用于表示等同的逻辑联系语很多，常见的有：equally，likewise，namely，similarly，in the same way，in other words，that is，I mean，that is to say等。例如：

例29：You must pack plenty of food for the journey.Likewise，you’ll need warm clothes，so pack them too.

例30：He is being a fool.In other words，he is behaving foolishly.

表示等同语义的逻辑联系语有些（如equally，likewise，similarly）可归入“比较照应”。

6.表示原因结果

誗表示原因。表示原因（reason）的逻辑联系语不多，常见的有连词for，since，because，as；介词词组due to，because of，on account of，owing to，thanks to等。例如：

例31：Mrs.Cox’s favorite subject is literature，and her most exciting classes are those on the literature of Black Americans.For Mrs.Cox，like most of the students in her school，is Black.

例32：When I saw her in the river I was frightened.For at that point the currents were dangerous.

誗表示结果。结果这一语义关系可以用accordingly，consequently，hence，now，so，therefore，thus，as a consequence，in consequence，for that reason，as a result，of course等词语表示。例如：

例33：He was too sick to stay.Accordingly，we sent him home.

例34：The documents were not ready.Consequently，we could not sign them.

例35：They refused to pay the higher rent when an increase was announced.As a result，they were evicted from their apartment.

7.表示推论

推论这一语义关系可以由下列词语表示：else，otherwise，then in other words，in that case等。例如：

例36：A：Please give my regards to John.B：Then you’re not coming with me？

例37：You must get some more petrol.Otherwise，we will not have enough to get us to the next town.

例38：You say your father might object？In that case I will not press the matter.

8.表示总结

表示总结的联系语主要是用在句、段或语篇的最后部分，对前面的内容作出概括或总结。能表示这一意义的有：altogether，overall，then，therefore，thus，（all）in all，in conclusion，in sum，in short，in brief，on the whole，to conclude，to sum up，to summarize等。例如：

例39：He lost his watch，his car broke down，and he got a letter of complaint from a customer：all in all，he had a bad day.

例40：The film has a very unusual plot，with plenty of action.Both the acting and photography are excellent.To sum up，this is a film you should not miss.

9.表示替换转题

（1）表示替换。替换这一语义关系可用again，alternatively，or，rather，better（still），worse，on the other hand，or at least，or rather等词语来表示。替换的目的可能是纠正前面的说法，也可能是用肯定的叙述来替代否定的叙述，或用真实的结果来替代原先的预料。例如：

例41：You can walk home，if you wish.Or rather，I can give you a lift in my car.

例42：If things get any worse，we might have to arrange a public meeting to discuss the matter.Better still，we could even organize a demonstration.

（2）表示转题。转题指引进新的一层意思或引进新的话题，能用来表示转题的逻辑联系语有：now，incidentally，by the way，to change the subject等。例如：

例43：We have settled that at last.Now，what was the other thing we wanted to discuss？

例44：I must go now.Incidentally if you want that book I’ll bring it next time.

练习：

1.As water flows along the ground，it picks up sands，pepples，even boulders.By this process enormous amounts of mud and rock are moved from the land to the sea.Each year the Mississippi River carries 730million tons of solid matter in to the Gulf of Mexico.

2.Professor Richard Larson，an electrical engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology，hates queuing but rather than tear his hair out，he decided to study the subject.His first finding，which backs up earlier work at the US National Science Foundation，was that the degree of annoyance was not directly related to the time.

3.Military awards have long been considered symbolic of royalty，and thus when the United States was young nation just finished with revolution and eager to distance itself from anything tasting of monarchy，there was strong sentiment against military decoration.For a century，from the end of Revolutionary War until the civil War，the United States awarded no military honors.The institution of the Medal of Honor in 1861 was a source of great discussion and concern.From the Civil War until World War I，the Medal of Honor was the only military award given by the United States government，and today it is awarded only in the most extreme cases of heroism.Although the United States is still somewhat wary of granting military awards，several awards have been instituted since World War I.

4.A placebo is a sugar pill，a harmless shot，or an empty capsule.Even though they have no medicine in them，these things seem to make people well.The patient thinks it is medicine and begins to get better.How does this happen？

5.Husbands who complain about their wives’spending habits may be afraid that they are losing power in their marriage.Wives，on the other hand，may waste huge amounts of money because they are angry at their husbands.

答案及详解：

1.在这里首先应用了同义词sand和mud的复现；然后使用了上下义词的复现，即rock泛指石头是pepple（鹅卵石）和boulder（巨石）的上义词；而solid matter（固体）又是sand和rock的上义词。

2.这段文字里出现了同义词和近义词的复现。在这里，hate，tear one’s hair out，annoyance都表示生气。

3.在这里首先应用了原词military awards的复现，在这段里共出现了三次。其次，使用了近义词royalty和monarchy的复现，这两个词在这里均表示王权、独裁；同义词decoration，award，medal这三个词均指奖章。

4.在这里同属于一个语义场景的词汇同现。placebo安慰剂，pill药片，shot打针，capsule胶囊，medicine药物，patient病人，get better好转，这些词都属于有病看病这一场景。

5.在这里husbands和wives作为一对互补词同现。