天文与时令

天文与时令Astronom y and Seasons

1中国古代早期的天文发展是什么样的情况?

What is the early history of ancient Chinese astronom y?

Astronomy in ancient China started during the Neolithic Period．At this time，people began to observe how the sun rose and set，and especially themoon's different phases．They even painted the sun，themoon，and stars on pottery．It was during the Xia Dynasty(2070 BC－1600 BC)，about three or four thousand years ago，that the lunar calendar came into existence．In China，many traditional festivities in a year are usually calculated according to this calendar．The present lunar calendar is still named“Xia calendar”(夏历)．In accordance with the records written on the Oracle Bone Scripts(甲骨文)，a year was divided into spring and autumn during the Xia Dynasty(2070 BC－1600 BC); there were 12 months a year，and 13 months a leap year(闰年); 30 days a solarmonth and 29days a lunarmonth．The Oracle Bone Scripts also record solar and lunar eclipses that took place during the Shang Dynasty(1600 BC－1046 BC)．In the period of theWestern Zhou Dynasty(1046 BC－771 BC)，political officialswere appointed to take charge of observing and recording the changes of the sky．During the Spring and Autumn Period(770 BC－476 BC)，according to the position of the moon each month，people were able to trace the movement of the sun，thus establishing the 28-xiu(lunar mansions，宿) system．Xiu is also translated as zodiac constellations．The Spring and Autumn Annals(《春秋》)，one of the “Four Books and Five Classics”(四书五经)，records the historical development of the State of Lu from 722 BC to479 BC．Thisbook recounts how a yearwas divided by the four seasons during this period．

Notes:①astronomy天文学②Neolithic新石器时代的③phase(月球的)位相④oracle神谕⑤eclipse蚀⑥mansion宅第⑦zodiac黄道带⑧constellation星宿

2中国古代人们一般怎样看待天文?

How popular was astronom y in ancient China?

In ancient China，astronomers believed that the movements of the starswere related closely to the destiny of the country and its rulers，and therefore cataloged every observable star．A constellation was called“a palace”，with the major star being the emperor star and lesser stars princes．When a wise prince occupied the throne，the moon followed the right way．When the prince was notwise and theministers abused power，the moon lost itsway．From the 16th century BC to the end of the 19th century AD，almost every dynasty appointed officials to take charge of observing and recording the changes in the sky．

The Chinese believed planetary phenomena could reveal if lifewasoutof balance．For example，if the sun or the moon was to inexplicably lose brightness，early Chinese believed lightmay never return，and the world would end．A solar eclipse provoked evenmore anxiety，for astronomers imagined that a dragon was devouring the sun．Precisely because of thisandmany other fears，the ancient Chinese began to observe solar and lunar eclipses，recording the time and size of the event，and searching for the reasons behind the eclipses．

Notes:①astronomer天文学家②catalog记载③observable看得见的④planetary行星的⑤phenomena(phenomenon的复数)现象⑥inexplicably无法说明地⑦provoke激起⑧devour吞没

3什么是三垣、四象、二十八宿?

What are 3 yuan，4 xiang and 28 xiu?

Ancient astronomers divided the astral regions around the North Pole into 3 yuan and 28 xiu．Yuan means“wall，”so the 3 yuan means“the ThreeWalls”which consist of the ZiweiWall(紫微垣)，the Taiwei Wall(太微垣)and the TianshiWall(天市垣)．

When the earth completes a rotation around the sun，direct sunlight falls inside the North-South Tropic that is regarded by ancient astronomers as the lucky ecliptic(黄道吉)．Astronomers divided the stars around the ecliptic into four quarters; the east，the south，the west and the north．Each quarter relates to a lucky supernatural beast．The Qinglong(the green dragon，青龙) represents the east，the Zhuque(the phoenix-like bird，朱雀) the south，the Baihu(the white tiger，白虎) the west and the Xuanwu(the tortoise-like creaturewith a snake winding round it，玄武) the north．These supernatural creatures represent the images of stars，and therefore they are called“the Four Images．”

Ancient astronomers also placed 28 xiu s on the different images，each image having seven xiu s．These xiu s are situated along the moon’s path as it rotates around the earth each month．They are called“mansions”or“lodges”because they were once understood to be resting places for themoon during its journey．

Notes:①North Pole北极②supernatural神的③phoenix凤凰④rotate转动

4什么是上古、中古、三古?

What are the Remote Ancient Times，the Middle Ancient Times and the Three Ancient Times?

The Remote Ancient Times refer to the age before written language，and therefore timewas recorded by tying knotswith a rope．

The Middle Ancient Times refer to the age between the Shang and Zhou dynasties(1600 BC－256 BC)．However，historians hold different opinions about when these two ages began and ended．According to the book Han Feizi(《韩非子》)，“During the Middle Ancient Times，heavy waters flooded the whole country，and Yu，the Great，is believed to have been in charge of draining the flood waters and building canals(中古之世，天下大水，而鲧禹决渎)．”These times refer to the legendary Yuxia Period(虞夏时期)．

The Three Ancient Times refer to the remote，the middle and the age after themiddle．As told by The Book of the Earlier Han Dynasty(《汉书》)，Fu Xi(伏羲)lived during the Remote Ancient Times; King Wen of the Zhou Dynasty(周文王)during the Middle Ancient Times，and Confucius during the Ancient Times after themiddle ones．Fu Xiwas the first of the three noble emperors in Chinese mythology．KingWen was the father of King Wu(武王)，the founder of the Zhou Dynasty，and one of the sage rulers regarded by Confucian historians as amodel king．

Notes:①knot(绳等的)结②mythology神话③sage贤明的

5什么是阴历?

What is the Chinese lunar calendar?

Yinli is the lunar or agricultural calendar，which contains amixture of solar and lunar elements．The lunar calendar is derived from astronomical observations of the longitude of the sun and the phases of themoon．Its beginnings can trace back to the 14th century BC．Legend has it that the Yellow Emperor(黄帝)invented the calendar in 2637 BC．The Chinese calendar's years coincide with the tropical years，and its months coincide with the synodic months．An ordinary year has 12 monthswhile a leap year has 13 months．An ordinary year has 353，354，or 355 days，and a leap year has 383，384，or385 days．The Chinese calendar doesnotuse a continuous year count，but instead usesa60－year cycle and a system of regional years(starting with each emperor)．In 1582 Jesuitmissionaries introduced the Gregorian calendar to China，butnotuntil1912 was it adopted．With the adoption of theWestern calendar，the yin-yang calendar lost its primary importance in Chinese society．Currently Chinese use the lunar calendar for the scheduling of holidays such as Chinese New Year(Spring Festival)，the Mid-Autumn Festival，and for divination，including choosing themostauspicious date for awedding or the grand opening of an important building．

Notes:①coincide with相符;巧合②tropical year回归年;太阳年③synodic相合的④continuous连续的⑤Jesuit耶稣会信徒⑥Gregorian calendar格列高利历;公历

6什么是“黄历”和“皇历”?

What are the“Huang Di Almanac”and the “Imperial Calendar?”

Before the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC－25 AD)，there were six different ancient lunar calendars: the Huang DiCalendar(黄历，Almanac)，the Xia Calendar(夏历，the Lunar Calendar)，the Yin Calendar(殷历)among others．Legend has it that Huang Di，the Yellow Emperor who reined from 2698 BC to 2599 BC，invented the first Chinese calendar called“Huang Di Calendar，”or the“Huang Calendar．”After omens，superstitions，and taboos were added，the name of the calendar became a general term referring to any ancient almanac．

In the early 9th century，the imperial government of the Tang Dynasty gave an order that calendars or almanacs should not be printed until after the emperor examined them．The order also declared that only official printing shops were permitted to print out calendars．From then on，calendarswere called“the Imperial Calendar(皇历)．”

There exist other explanations of the origins of the Imperial Calendar．For example，towards the end of ev-ery lunar year，Emperor Tai Zong of the Song Dynasty(宋太宗)(976－998) would present calendars to his civil officialsand generals．These calendar contained information related to the dates of lunar festivals and seasons，and basic knowledge of farming and planting．A calendar from then on was known as the“Imperial Calendar”because the Emperor would grant it to his subjects．

Notes:①almanac历书②omen预兆③superstition迷信④taboo忌讳⑤grant赐予

7什么是节气?

What is jieqi?

Jieqi means“solar period”or“solar term．”The solar-based agricultural calendar is divided into 24 solar periods，each period being marked by three climatic signs．These climatic signs occur when the sun reaches one of twenty-four equally spaced points along the ecliptic，positioned at fifteen-degree intervals．These periods aremeasured in the standard astronomical convention of the ecliptic longitude，with zero degrees positioned at the vernal equinox point．

Even though the solar-based periods fall around the same date every year in the solar calendar，they do not form any obvious pattern in the Chinese calendar．These solar periods primarily work as seasonalmarkers to help farmers decide when to plant and harvest crops．The 24 periods are published each year in the farmers'calendar，with each calendarmonth containing the designated periods．These periods begin at the equinox in February，known in Chinese as the“Beginning of Spring(立春)．”In the same month，the second period is called “Rain Water(雨水)，”which means“Starting at this point，the temperature makes rain more likely than snow．”The third period in March is called“Awakening of Insects(惊蛰)，”which means“all the hibernating insectswill awaken．”

Notes:①solar period节气②climatic sign症候③convention惯例④vernal equinox point春分⑤hibernate冬眠

8什么是天干、地支?

What are tiangan and dizhi?

The Chinese calendar uses the terminology tiangan (Heavenly Stems) and dizhi(Earthly Branches)．The 10 Heavenly Stems are jia(甲)，yi(乙)，bing(丙)，ding(丁)，wu(戊)，ji(己)，geng(庚)，xin(辛)，ren(壬)and gui(癸)．The 12 Earthly Branches are zi(子)，chou(丑)，yin(寅)，mao(卯)，chen(辰)，si(巳)，wu(午)，wei(未)，shen(申)，you(酉)，xu(戌)and hai(亥)．

Initially the ten stems were invented to record the days．Jia referred to the first day，yi to the second day，bing to the third day，etc．The twelve brancheswere invented to record the months．Zi referred to the first month，chou to the second month，yin to the third month，etc．Ancient people used the Ten Heavenly Stems and the Twelve Earthly Branches to formulate a sixty-year cycle．Beginning in the Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD)，however，the sixty-year cycle began to be used in both official and unofficialways．These sixty combinations have been applied widely—to days，months and any variety of other items that can be counted in a cycle．Before the 1911 revolution，years were always counted starting from the date a new emperor came to power．

So how does one count years? Within each 60－year cycle，each year is assigned a name consisting of two components．The first component is a Heavenly Stem，and the second component is an Earthly Branch．Each of the two components is used sequentially．For example，the first year of the 60-year cycle is called jiazi(甲子)，the second year yi-chou(乙丑)，the third year bing-yin(丙寅)，etc．When we arrive at gui(癸)，the last one of the Heavenly Stems，we call the 10th year as gui-you(癸酉)．Then we restartwith jia，the first Heavenly Stem，and call the 11th year as jia-xu(甲戌)．After we arrive at hai(亥)，the last of the Earthly Branches，we will restart with zi．Such a process goes on until we arrive at the 60th year that is called gui-hai(癸亥)．

Notes:①terminology术语②Heavenly Stem天干③Earthly Branch地支④component成分⑤sequentially相继地

9什么是生肖?

How does the Chinese Zodiac work?

The Chinese zodiac or shengxiao，is composed of 12 animals in the following order: Mouse，Ox，Tiger，Rabbit，Dragon，Snake，Horse，Sheep(or Goat)，Monkey，Cock，Dog，and Pig．Although，the zodiac is an important part of traditional Chinese culture，its origins are unknown．Each of these twelve animal signs symbolizes a lunar year．If this year is the Year of the Dog，the next year will be the Year of the Pig．

There is a Chinese saying，“There is an animal that hides in your heart．”The Chinese believe the each zodiac animal exercises a profound influence over people born during its year．For example，if a person is born in the year of the Dragon，he/she is believed to have good luck in his/her life．

The following are stories associated with these twelve animal signs．

According to the first story，one day the Mousewas chosen to invite the animals to participate in a selection for the zodiac signs．Although the Catwas a good friend of the Mouse，the Mouse forgot to invite him．The Cat became angry and vowed then on to be the Mouse's natural enemy．

The second story recounts how the Mouse became the first of the twelve animal signs．Long ago，a god ordered all the animals to visit him on the New Year's Day．He said that those who arrived earlierwould be on the list of the twelve animal signs．As the Ox heard of this，he said to himself:“Oh，it's a long journey to visit the god．I'd better start early．”The Mouse heard what the Ox said．He quietly jumped onto the Ox'sback without being noticed．The two set out on the eve of the Lunar New Year．Upon arrival of the god's place，the Ox was excited to know that he was the first to greet the god．Justbefore hewasabout to offer to the god his New Year greetings，the Mouse quickly jumped down over the Ox'shead and kowtowed in frontof the god．The god was so happy to receive the first greetings from the Mouse that he named him the first of the twelve animal signs．

The third story describes how the Twelve Earthly Branches are divided into two groups．One group belongs to the yin(阴) and the other to the yang(阳)．Animals that belong to the yin would be placed in the yin group，and vice versa．But how were these twelve animals separated? Animals that have odd-number toes on each foot or paw fall into the yang and those who have even number on each foot or paw fall into the yin．The Tiger，the Dragon，the Monkey and the Dog each have five toes on each paw，and the Horse has one hoof．They all fall into the yang group．The clovenhoofed Ox，the Goat and the Pig fall into the yin group because their hoofs are divided into two parts．The Mouse has both the yin and yang features because of his four toes on each fore leg and five on each hind leg．Therefore the Mouse represents zi(子)，the first branch of the Twelve Earthly Branches since the zi branch covers a period from 11 o'clock in the evening(night or yin) to 1 o'clock(day or yang) early in the morning． The Mouse's yin and yang features also give him the honor of being the first animal of the Chinese zodiac．

Notes:①zodiac黄道带②symbolize象征③profound深刻的④vice versa反之亦然⑤odd number单数⑥even number偶数