不同朝代的文化发展

不同朝代的文化发展Cultural Development in Ancient China

1新石器时代文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Neolithic times?

During the Neolithic ageman lived a comparatively settled life in villages．Houseswere usually semi-subterranean，round，and rectangular．Central pillars supported a roof made of clay and thatch．The walls were of pounded earth，and inside were amenities such as ovens，cupboard，and benches allmade of clay．The population worked in agriculture，hunting，and fishing．Stone tools and weapons like arrowheads，harpoons，and needles were of both chipped and polished varieties; some were even made of bone．

Different types of pottery distinguished early cultures．The Yangshao Neolithic culture(仰韶文化)had reddish pottery of varying shapes and black designs．For example，one bowl from Banpo Village(半坡) has a highly stylized fish design with a prominent snout，eyes and an openmouth，all ofwhich exhibit the vitality and rhythm typical of Chinese art．

The Longshan culture(龙山文化)，which overlaps and succeeds the Yangshao Neolithic culture，developed ceramics that are thin，hard，black and burnished，and the profiles aremore angular than those of the Yangshao．

At Erlitou(二里头)in central Henan Province，the discoveries include remains of a bronze foundry as well as the foundations of two large houses．These discoveries show that Erlitou culture developed out of the Longshan，but their relationship remains subject to dispute．Some scholars say that the Erlitou culture belongs to the early Shang period，but others identify it with the Xia(夏朝)．

2夏、商、周文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Xia，Shang and Zhou dynasties?

At one time the Shang Dynasty(1600 BC－1046 BC) was considered a legend．Among the cultural heroes admired by the Chinese，Yu is particularly interesting because of his innovations related to flood control and irrigation．The oracle bones，the bronze-ware，and the tombs of the Shang reveal a civilization of splendor．

The story of the oracle bones of the Shang is very fascinating．The boneswere considered magical because they had characters inscribed upon them，dating from about1，300 BC，and some of the signs found on the Yangshao pottery represent the earliest known form of the Chinese language．Some 5，000 characters have been distinguished，and of these 1，500 have been deciphered．

In the Shang Dynasty，the kings were buried in coffins placed in immense pits along with numerous treasures．Among the most valuable of these objects were bronze vessels such as fine bronze fittings for chariots and harness．These artifacts were considered sacrifices to ancestors and gods，and at the same time were used to gain royal favor．The bronze-ware was solid yet decorous and usually derived from earlier pottery shapes．These bronze objectswere usually owned by the wealthy．Bronze workmanship attained an extremely high standard rarely surpassed anywhere else in history．

During three centuries of the Zhou Dynasty(1046 BC－256 BC)，society and culture continued along the lines established by the Shang．Magnificent bronze vesselswere still cast，but the inscriptions on bronze became longer and more detailed，and some vessels were made in large sets．Writing becamemore prevalent and recordswere kept in much greater quantity．By the end of the Zhou Dynasty，there were works on history，music，rituals，archery，and other topics．Mostof these recordswere kept on bamboo or wood which consisted of slats bound by a cord．

The Zhou Dynasty is by far the longest in Chinese history of which the second half(known as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty) is divided into two sections: the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period．A great technical advance of that time was smelting and casting iron．Iron was used to cut the edges of wooden spades and to make other tools such as hoes，knives，and sickles．

The Eastern Zhou Dynasty(770 BC－256 BC) also saw the rise ofmajor ideologies．Confucius and Mencius founded the Confucian School(儒家)，and Shang Yang (商鞅)and Han Fei(韩非) founded the Legalist School(法家)．A new style of poems and songs appeared in the south called chu ci(Ballads of Chu，《楚辞》)，whose representative work was Li Sao(《离骚》)by the poet Qu Yuan(屈原)．

Notes:①innovation创新②fascinating极美的极好的③decipher解释④chariot战车⑤decorous端庄得体的⑥workmanship工艺品⑦surpass优于⑧archery箭术⑨cast浇铸

3秦、汉文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Qin and Han dynasties?

In 221 BC，the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty ended the chaos of the Warring States Period by promoting feudal landownership，developingmeans of communication，and unifying the written language，monetary currency，and weight and measurement systems．To protect against the threat of the nomadic tribes in the north，sectional walls already built by three of the former kingdoms were strengthened，joined and extended to form a single wall along the northern frontier，thus building the GreatWall(长城)．The GreatWallwe see today is 1，400 miles long and wasmainly built in the Ming period．

After the Qin Dynasty，the Han emperors restored Confucianism by appointing specialists in The Five Classics andmaking filial piety one of the criteria for appointing officials．Although Confucianism enjoyed new favor and imperial support，Daoism was also a potent factor．Daoism had influenced Emperor Wu Di and impressed the father of the noted historian Sima Qian(司马迁)．Daoism is a religion native to China which took shape during the reign of Emperor Shun Di(顺帝年间，125－144) of the Eastern Han Dynasty．Daoist doctrine is rooted in age-old witchcraft，recipes for immortality，and the concepts of Huang Di(the Yellow Emperor) and Lao Zi．The philosophy greatly influenced economic，cultural，and political thinking of feudal China for more than 1，700 years．

Sima Qian lived during the reign of Emperor Wu Di．He continued the work of his father by completing Records of the Historian(《史记》)．This record covers a period of some 3，000 years，from the legendary age of the Yellow Emperor to the Han Emperor and is the first comprehensive history in the form of biographical records in China．Sima Qian's work set a standard for all subsequent Chinese historical writing．This work was followed by The Book of the Earlier Han Dynasty(《汉史》)by the Ban family: Ban Biao(班彪)，Ban Gu(班固)and Ban Zhao(班昭)．This book records the historical period from the first year of Gaozu(高祖)，the first emperor of the Han Dynasty until the fourth year of Dihuang of the Xin Dynasty(王莽地皇)．

In other Han literature，themost distinctive type is the fu(赋)，which has sometimes been classified as poetry，sometimes as rhythmic prose since the fu's meter and length of line are irregular．The themes revolve around the court，palace，capital，landscapes，hunting，and court amusement．

Technological inventions also advanced at this time．Zhang Heng(张衡) invented a seismograph and various astronomical instruments powered by water; the physician Zhang Zhongjing(张仲景)wrote Shang Han Lun(A Treatise on Fevers，《伤寒论》); Cai Lun(蔡伦) of the Eastern Han used bark，bast- fiber，and pieces of cloth asmaterial tomake better paper．

4六代文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture during the Six Dynasties?

The NorthernWei is perhapsbest known for its legacy of Buddhist art，particularly the sculpture found in the Yungang Grottoes(云冈石窟)，West of Datong(大同)and the Longmen Grottoes(龙门石窟)near Luoyang．Such works of art are but one of the visual signs thatmark the beginning of the complex processbywhich Buddhism was assimilated into Chinese culture．At about the 2nd century，Mahayana Buddhism entered Central China but did nothave awide appeal until about the time of the Northern Wei．Buddhism spread further during the subsequent period．One of the several social factors thatmade wide acceptance possible at this time was the fusing of Buddhism and Daoism together which allowed the former to fit Chinese culture and thought．

Tao Yuanming(陶渊明) is regarded as one of China's greatest poets．After a short career in government，he retired to live the life of a country gentleman．In his verse there aremany references to wine，the simple country life，books，and nature．His poems convey a serene harmony with nature．Other fine poets also wrote during this period，but there was at the same time a tendency for poets to indulge in increasingly artificial styles and to show off their virtuosity by using an exotic vocabulary．

During the later Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD)，the development of cursive script turned writing into a personal art which suited well the educated class who had practiced calligraphy since childhood．Calligraphy came to be especially valued as ameans for self-expression and a creative outlet．During the Jin Dynasty，there were some great calligraphists，including Wang Xizhi(王羲之)and Wang Xianzhi(王献之)whose art served as a model for generations．During the period of the North Wei，stone tablets were engraved with the Standard Script，a type of style based on the Clerical Script．People named the engraved calligraphic works of this period the Wei Tablets(魏碑)，which have been regarded as themodel of calligraphy．

In painting，the main subject continued to be the human figure．One famous painter was Gu Kaizhi(顾恺之)who waswell known for capturing with his brush the essential character of his subjects．A hand-scroll with the poem“Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies(《女史箴图》)”is still extant．The heightened interest in painting led to the development of art criticism and stimulated the classic formulations of the six rules(六法)or principle of paintings by Xie He(谢赫) of the Qi State．

Notes:①legacy遗产②sculpture雕刻③complex错综复杂的④assimilate吸收⑤convey表达⑥indulge放任⑦show off炫耀⑧virtuosity艺术鉴别力⑨exotic奇特的⑩clerical文书的

5隋、唐文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture during the Suiand Tang dynasties?

The Tang Dynasty(618－907) was a period of great economic prosperity and cultural growth in Chinese Feudal society．The Tang culture opened up to cultural influences from India and the distant west; it was also the cultural model for other Eastern Asian countries．There were a considerable number of foreigners who lived in Chang'an(长安)，some of whom came from as far away as India，Iran，Syria，and Arabia．Some were students，and other foreignersweremerchants．

Chinese Buddhism continued to develop as Buddhistmonasteries flourished and fulfilled important social roles．The most outstanding monks had sufficient insight to develop their own doctrine and teaching styles．Eight Buddhist sects appeared between 581 and 755．The Tiantai，Huayan，Pure Land and Zen schools(天台宗、华严宗、净土宗、禅宗) were the fourmajor sects that had considerable influence in ancient China．

Large scale Tang sculpture in wood and bronze has not survived．However，there aremany stone statues，including sculptures in the Yungang and Longmen Grottoes．The Buddha drawn in caves at the time is depicted as a majestic personage radiating goodness and compassion．Stone Sculptures in Dazu(大足)started in the first year of Jingfu(景福)of the Tang Dynasty，and completed by the end of the Southern Song Dynasty．Dazu's sculptors developed vividness and grace both in form and content．The caves are filled with delicately carved statues that prominently show full and stately appearance．The figures are draped in their simple and flowing garments．

The Tang literature is most famous for its poetry，which reached a new height in romanticism and realism，known as the golden age of Chinese classical poetry．Two important forms of poetry came to maturity at this time: “regulated poetry(a eight-line verse form with either 5 or 7 characters per line，排律)”and“cut-short poetry( a four-line version of the regulated form，绝句)．”Scholars in China commonly regard Li Bai and Du Fu as the greatest poets in the history of Classic literature．Li Bai used the conventional verse forms，which frequently contain a strong element of fantasy and super-nature．His poetry sounds lyrical and innovative．Like the works of Shakespeare in English tradition，Du Fu's poetry came to be so deeply bound up with the literary value that generation after generation of poets and critics rediscovered themselves and their interests in some aspectof the poet'swork．In the 790's，Han Yu(韩愈)and Bai Juyi(白居易)began towrite in their own distinctive styles．Unlike Du Fu，Baiwrote in simple and easy language．Like Du Fu，he had a strong social conscience．

6宋朝文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Song Dynasty?

The fall of the Tang Dynasty was followed by more than fifty years of disorder before the country was finally reunited under the Song(960－1279)．The gap between dynasties did not lesson the interest ofwhat scholars had in cultural pursuit．Ci-poems(宋词)of the Song dynasty are a type of poetry that emerged during the Tang Dynasty and reached its full development under the Song dynasty as a major achievement of Song literature．Cipoems again became very popular during the Qing Dynasty．Ci-lines are in unequal length and set tomusic．Most of the poems do not even have their own titles，but are named after an original melody．Composers and writers use thismelody to write a new poem．The originalmelody is a tune pattern．In the Song Dynasty，this type of poetry may be divided into two groups．One is known for its wan yue(delicate restraint，婉约)，and the other for its hao fang( heroic abandon and vigor，豪放)．The vigorous ci-poem type is represented in the works of Su Shi(苏轼)of the Northern Song and Xin Qiji(辛弃疾)of the Southern Song．Under the influence of the greatwriter Su Shi，the ci-poem began to free itself from itsmusical background and became primarily a literary art form．

Beginning in the Tang Dynasty，landscape painting came to the fore and reached its peak during the Five Dynasties and the early Song，in the hands of Li Cheng(李成)and Fan Kuan(范宽)who continued their tradition into the 11th century．One of Fan's paintings is Travellers Along a Mountain Stream(《溪山行旅图》)．His paintings' impressive scope，strength，and dark tones have replaced the rich colors，the clarity of line，and the decorative charm of earlier landscape paintings．The most famous example of landscape painting in this period is the Northern Song painter Zhang Zeduan(张择端)'s Riverside Sceneat Qingming Festival(《清明上河图》)．The Song painters produced classic works of art strikingly different from the paintings of the earlier times．Theminds of the great Song artistswere affected by philosophical influences from both Daoism and Buddhism．More subtle expression appeared in the same dynasty，and painters emphasized the spiritual qualities of the painting and the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony between man and nature．

Ceramics also developed unique qualities during this time．The color glazed ceramics of the Song are among themost highly valued by collectors．Song wares include stoneware and porcelain．Vessels are covered with a clay coating thathas been carved away to produce a design; others are covered with enamel or decorated with a painting．Colors run from white through gray to black as well as various hues．Some of Song ceramics weremade especially for the imperial household and represented the artistic refinement of the age．

In the second half of the eleventh century，Confu-cianism reemerged out of the works of Zhou Dunyi(周敦颐) and Chengyi(程颐)，but by nomeans was the same as in the days of Confucius and Mencius．The challenge of Indian Buddhist metaphysics and Daoist thought required that some attention be given to a philosophic frame-work，which would serve to explain the world and human nature．There was a considerable debate between the various schools of thought，but in the end the comprehensive views of Zhu Xi(朱熹) prevailed，and he became the leader of a new orthodoxy，known in theWest as Neo-Confucianism．

According to Zhu Xi's ideas，everything in the world is constituted by the interaction of two factors，the li(理)，or form of the object，and its qi(气)，ormatter．(The meaning of the second term is literally “breath．”) The li of all things is summed up in the Great Ultimate(太极)．Li is the origin of everything and governs nature and human society．As toman，the li of human nature is common to all and is basically good，butmen vary in their exemplification of good or evil according to their qi or physical endowment．

There had been a long-continued debate between the realist Confucian school descended from Xunzi(荀子)，who said that human naturewas evil，and the idealists depending on Mencius，whomaintained that itwas good．Zhu Xi supported Mencius'view but said that the education Mencius recommended must be backed up by self-cultivation(修身)．Zhu Xiunderstood it in a particular sense．For him itmeant something much deeper than the English word implies in the nature of personal commitment．He says that the goal should be reached by the extension of knowledge through“the investigation of things(格物)”and“attentiveness of mind(精思)．”Zhu Xi says that the investigation of things means that we should seek forwhat is above shapes bywhat iswithin shapes．

In 1313，a century after Zhu Xi's death，by a decree of the Yuan Dynasty，Zhu Xi's commentaries on The Four Books were made the official standard for the civil service examinations．The ethical teachings by Zhu became accepted state philosophy from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty．

7元朝文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Yuan Dynasty?

In 1279，the Yuan Dynasty(1206－1368) conquered the Southern Song and reunited China．The outstanding achievement of the Yuan Dynasty in literature is Yuan drama(元剧)，which appeared around the end of the Jin and the beginning of the Yuan．Yuan drama consists basically of a single and complete story in four acts or song sequences．Protagonists，eithermale or female，sing its song or arias．Apart from the arias，there are also dialogues，stage action and dance performed to music accompaniment．The Yuan drama touched on all levels of the Yuan Dynasty．Guan Hanqing(关汉卿) and Wang Shifu(王实甫)were the most famous beizaju(北杂剧)creators．530 Yuan operas have survived，includingmasterpieces such as Snow in Midsummer(《窦娥冤》)，The Western Chamber(《西厢记》) and The Orphan of Zhao(《赵氏孤儿》)．Music played an important part in the theater．The songs or song sequences in each actwere in a single mode．The lute and zither were the standard instruments of the northern Yuan drama．

Yuan free-song(元曲)was a new form of rhymed verse，which developed out of popular northern ballads and folk songs．The tunes are derived from several different ethnic groups and do not correspond to Song lyric tunes．Most free-songs are quite short，and these are known as“minor songs(小令);”those consisting of two ormore stanzas are called“free-song sets(套曲)．”

The Yuan Dynasty is known for its outstanding inkwash paintings．Amateur artists found a vehicle for selfexpression and cultivation with brush and ink．Zhao Mengfu(赵孟)was amajor painter and one of China's truly great calligraphers．His Autumn Color on the Que and Hua Mountains(《鹊华秋色图》)greatly appealed to the Yuan literati．In Zhao's painting，the use of space for calligraphy doesnot disturb his painting．In a sense，the painting is calligraphy，too; in another sense，the calligraphy is painting．Calligraphy in the Yuan was prized as one of sublime characterswhich gave way to a variety in painting and writing styles．

Notes:①basically基本上②protagonist主角③aria抒情调④masterpiece名作⑤ballad民歌⑥correspond(+ to/with)符合;一致⑦stanza诗的一节⑧appeal(+ to)有吸引力

8明、清文化发展的概况是什么?

Could you tellme about the culture in the Ming and Qing dynasties?

Feudalism began to decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties(1368－1911) while handcraft industries developed and the beginnings of a capitalist economy emerged．The spread of democratic and nationalist ideas gave the progressive literature its anti-feudal flavor．The traditional episodic novel thus developed as a literary form during the Ming and Qing dynasties，with a broad thematic range，including historical romances，chivalric tales，ghost stories，social satires and love stories．The Romance of the Three Kingdoms(《三国演义》) is thought to have been compiled by Luo Guanzhong(罗贯中)between the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty．The book is based on existing written and oral accounts of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period of Wei(魏)，Shu(蜀) and Wu(吴)．The Outlaws of the Marsh(《水浒传》) recounts the stories of108men and women who during the Northern Song Dynasty gathered at Liangshan Mountain(梁山) in present Shandong Province under the leadership of Song Jiang(宋江)．Most of the chapters can be thought of as independent biographies，and they have been told and retold by Chinese people for generations．The Journey to the West(《西游记》)is based on the actual pilgrimage of a Chinesemonk，Xuan Zang，who traveled to India in the 7th century for Buddhist scriptures．This novel has had a profound influence on Chinese literature due to its romantic style，imaginative content and humorous expressions．The Dream of the Red Chamber(《红楼梦》) contains120 chapters in all and is a masterpiece of world literature．Most scholars believe that the first 80 chapterswerewritten by Cao Xueqin(曹雪芹); the final40 chapterswere added by Gao E(高鹗) along the lines of the original author's intention．The novel focuses on the tragic love stories of Jia Baoyu(贾宝玉) and his beautiful cousins，Lin Daiyu(林黛玉) and Xue Baochai(薛宝钗)．The story also depicts the gradual decline of the aristocratic Jia family and represents the peak of the development in the traditional Chinese realistic novel．

During the Ming dynasty，drama in the southern style reached its peak but differed from northern drama in language，form andmusic．Southern playsweremuch longer，and bamboo flutes accompanied songs．Ming playwrights were often sophisticated literary men．Most of the plays are about love affairs．Themost famous romance-drama is The Peony Pavilion(《牡丹亭》) by Tang Xianzu(汤显祖) from the Ming．This is a long play of fifty-five scenes centering on a love so strong that it is able to bring the dead back to life．One of the last southern masterpieces is The Peach Blossom Fan(《桃花扇》)，which was completed by Kong Shangren(孔尚任) in 1699 and depicted the end of the Ming．The Southern drama continued to be performed，but toward the end of the eighteenth century，hundreds of new forms of opera emerged throughout the country．These new forms followed regional types and combined local dialects，folk songs，music and dancing．Among the best-known forms staged nationwide are Beijing Opera，Pingjü( found mainly in North China，评剧)，and Yuju (Henan Clapper Opera，豫剧)．Strictly speaking，all forms of traditional opera，including Beijing Opera，are based on the music and dialects of specific areas，so their popularity is largely confined to that area．The birth of Beijing Opera and the blossom of varied operas across the country indicate traditional Chinese opera has reached a high level ofmaturity．

In the middle Ming Dynasty，the most important center for painting was Suzhou，where the Wu School(吴派) flourished(1460－1560)，and the literati could pursue their interests in peace．Centers like the Zhe School(浙派)and Wu School were separated based on the artists' residence，style，and social status．Shen Zhou(沈周)stands at the beginning of the Wu tradition by developing a style of his own that conveyed genial warmth and natural ease．Wen Zhengming(文徵明) studied painting under Shen Zhou．He was a versatile scholar，and followed themodel of Zhao Mengfu．Some of his paintings contain references to painting styles going back to the Tang styles that revived during the Southern Song and the Yuan．Qing painters generally perceived themselves as latecomers in a tradition．In early Qing period，the most original work was done by men who refused to serve the Qing government．Among those who found tranquility in a Buddhistmonastery was Hong Ren(弘仁)．Hismasterpiece，The Pictureof Forest in Autumn(《秋林图》)，displays amarvelous sense of structural depth．One of the most eccentric was Zhu Da(朱耷)，also called Bada Shanren(八大山人)．His paintingwasunusual: surging landscape，huge lotuses，and birds and fish with the eyes of a Zen patriarch．Daoji(道济)，a descendant of the Ming imperial house，became a Buddhist monk．In addition to his painting，he is known for his Notes on Painting(《搜尽奇峰打草稿图》)．Hewritesof a single line from which the whole painting grows．There were also more orthodox painters like the four artists whose family names were allWang(Wang Shimin，王时敏; Wang Jian，王;Wang Hui，王翚; Wang Yuanqi，王原祁)．In 1691，Wang Hui received an imperial commission to supervise a series of scroll paintings that commemorated Emperor Kangxi's southern tour．Wang Yuanqi became Kangxi's chief artist adviser．

In the Ming period，porcelain was produced in factories，notably at Jingdezhen(景德镇) in Jiangxi Province．The imperial factories produced exquisite ware，not only for the palace but also for purchase by the wealthy and for export．The fine china clay known as gaoling(高岭土)could be heated to a high temperature to become extremely hard．Vessels could thus be made with walls thin enough to be almost translucent．The art of porcelain has a long history．In the Tang Dynasty，the color-glazed figures of horses and camels，aswell as bowls and vases are in yellow，green，brown，blue，black，and white．Yellow，green and brown are themajor colors．The delicate pale green celadon of the Song is sometimes plain and sometimes lightly incised．The porcelain vessels of the Yuan had already had varied patterns of scrolls，leaves，sunflowers，weaves peony，fruits，dragon，phoenix，and flowing streams，buta rich variety of painted designs opened great prospects for painting on Ming porcelain．The well-known patterns of painted porcelain include Blue-and-white porcelain(青花瓷)，under-glaze red porcelain(釉里红)，polychrome over-glaze décor porcelain(五彩瓷)，and soft-colored over-glaze décor porcelain(粉彩瓷)．A special type of porcelain known as trade porcelain arose during the Qing tomeet the demand of European aristocrats and wealthy merchants in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries．Chinese artists would paint western designs according to the customer'swishes．