如何写好主体段

时间：2023-02-27 理论教育版权反馈

【摘要】：主体段一般为150词左右。每个主体段需要针对阅读材料的某个特征深度展开，包括转述重点信息、结合信息分析作者意图、解释这一特征是如何支持主旨并影响读者的。从主体段段落内部结构的角度来说，R对应着主体段的主题句，I对应着主体段的展开句和核心信息，C和E构成主体段的核心信息。使用这一原则可以让考生写出一个符合评分标准的基础主体段落。对应地写在每一个主体段的主题句位置。

分析型写作一般包括三个或四个主体段，每一段围绕着一个阅读材料的主要特征进行解释和分析。主体段一般为150词左右。

每个主体段需要针对阅读材料的某个特征深度展开，包括转述重点信息、结合信息分析作者意图、解释这一特征是如何支持主旨并影响读者的。只要能够具体深入地写出这些方面，分析型写作就能取得一个不俗的分数。为了方便大家记忆，这里介绍一种比较简洁的原则——RICE原则。

RICE原则是对主体段写法的一个概括，包括四个主要步骤：识别特征（Recognition）、重点信息（Information）、特征作用（Contribution）和特征效果（Effect）。即：

RICE＝Recognition＋Information+Contribution+Effect

所以，RICE原则可以说是主体段的主要组织细胞，能够让学生快速掌握读、析、写的方法。从主体段段落内部结构的角度来说，R对应着主体段的主题句（Topic Sentence），I对应着主体段的展开句和核心信息（Developing Sentence＋Detail），C和E构成主体段的核心信息（Detail）。使用这一原则可以让考生写出一个符合评分标准的基础主体段落。下面我们来熟悉一下基本步骤。

识别出阅读材料的主要特征或技巧并以此特征或技巧为主线写成主体段的主题句。对应地写在每一个主体段的主题句（Topic Sentence）位置。

示例

Bogard starts his article off by recounting a personal story...

针对主要特征或技巧进行信息总结和解读。对应地写在每一个主体段的展开句位置。

注：针对某个或某些特征或手法逐一展开重点信息的解析，可以采用直接引用或间接引用来转述细节信息并对信息加以解释和分析。

示例

…a summer spent on a Minnesota lake where there was "woods so dark that [his] hands disappeared before [his] eyes." In telling this brief anecdote, Bogard challenges the audience to remember a time where they could fully amass themselves in natural darkness void of artificial light.

分析某一技巧是如何支持主旨的。对应写在每一个主体段的核心分析部分。

示例

By drawing in his readers with a personal encounter about night darkness, the author means to establish the potential for beauty, glamour, and awe-inspiring mystery that genuine darkness can possess. He builds his argument for the preservation of natural darkness by reminiscing for his readers a first-hand encounter that proves the "irreplaceable value of darkness."

深度分析某一技巧是如何影响读者并对其造成了何种效果。对应写在每一个主体段的核心分析部分。

示例

This anecdote provides a baseline of sorts for readers to find credence with the author's claims.

依据上述四个步骤写出的内容综合起来就形成了如下主体段：

Bogard starts his article off by recounting a personal story — a summer spent on a Minnesota lake where there was "woods so dark that [his] hands disappeared before [his] eyes." In telling this brief anecdote, Bogard challenges the audience to remember a time where they could fully amass themselves in natural darkness void of artificial light. By drawing in his readers with a personal encounter about night darkness, the author means to establish the potential for beauty, glamour, and awe-inspiring mystery that genuine darkness can possess. He builds his argument for the preservation of natural darkness by reminiscing for his readers a first-hand encounter that proves the "irreplaceable value of darkness." This anecdote provides a baseline of sorts for readers to find credence with the author's claims.

值得注意的是，在写作过程中，并不一定要死板地按照四个步骤逐一展开，比如，可以边转述信息（Information）边联系主旨（Contribution），也可以边联系主旨（Contribution）边解释效果（Effect）（详见本节第四部分中具体的分析段落），所以，只要在行文过程中能够说出这四个重点，综合各种技巧进行透彻深度的分析，就是一个成功的主体段。

依据College Board官方指南中对于写作部分的说明，考生在写作时可以选择分析的特征和技巧包括：论据特征（Evidence，such as facts or examples）、论证特征（Reasoning）、风格或修辞特征（Stylistic or Persuasive Elements，such as word choice or appeals to emotion）。

常见的论据有：事实论据（Fact）、数据论据（Statistic）、专家引言（Expert Quote）、轶事论据（Anecdote）。

常见的论证方法有：因果论证（Reason ＆ Effect）、反驳论证（Counterargument ＆ Rebuttal）、比较和对比论证（Comparison ＆ Contrast）。

常见的修辞方法有：比喻（Figuration）、拟人（Personification）、夸张（Hyperbole）、反问（Rhetorical Question）、排比（Parallelism）、用典（Allusion）等。

常见的风格要素有：语气特征（Tone）、措辞特征（Diction）、修辞策略（Ethos/Pathos/Logos）等。

下面我们主要介绍如何运用RICE原则来分析官方建议的三个方面的特征。

a. 定义：

陈述或列举客观事实的论据方法，经常出现在阅读材料中有调查或研究（study，research）的部分。

b. 识别：

In terms of smarts and success, is reading causative or merely correlated? Which comes first, "The Hardy Boys" or the hardy mind? That's difficult to unravel, but several studies have suggested that people who read fiction, reveling in its analysis of character and motivation, are more adept at reading people, too: at sizing up the social whirl around them. They're more empathetic. God knows we need that.

Late last year, neuroscientists at Emory University reported enhanced neural activity in people who'd been given a regular course of daily reading, which seemed to jog the brain: to raise its game, if you will.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为事实论据，引用于官方机构并客观反映了现实或现象。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了事实论据（Fact），或者也可以提及它出自可信的机构。

Information

转述或直接引用事实论据的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料中的事实论据所在的段落及其上下文来解析其作用和内涵，证明作者如何利用事实论据来证明主旨的可靠性。

Effect

分析事实论据对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用事实论据让读者更深刻地感受到某个问题，并且通过事实论据增强文章的逻辑性。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

authentic, irrefutable, credible, undeniable

By employing a fact that…, the writer illustrates the claim he has mentioned above that…

The writer cites facts commissioned by an authoritative organization to lend credibility to his subsequent point that…

例题

通过下面这段例文学习如何对事实论据进行分析。

It is time to start preparing for a warmer future. According to a recent report published by the United Nations Climate Panel, a panel made up of leading scientists from around the world, our planet is almost certainly in the midst of a long term period of warming. The report, which suggested both human emissions and natural climatic cycles play a role in the current warming trend, comes at a time when concerns about global food production are at their height after the worst harvest since the beginning of industrial farming methods. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seems to pin this trend on a warming climate when they recently released a report that stated "increasing temperatures have accelerated desertification of farmland throughout much of the Midwest, thereby producing the weakest corn harvest in American history." A professor at a famous university was quoted saying that "If this warming trend is truly here to stay, citizens of the world had best begin preparing for a future in which the threat of a food shortage looms large." Indeed, last year saw more humans below the poverty line than ever before.

Step 1: Recognition

This is a logos argument, because it uses published authoritative fact as its basis.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了事实论据这一文体特征来支持人们要重视全球变暖现象这一主旨。

Step 2: Information

The writer cites credible sources (UN Climate Panel, USDA/FDA) in an effort to show the reader that this is not just a matter of opinion, but rather of considered and scientific fact. The author focuses on the effects that are the evidence of the climate changes being discussed — such as the reduction in global food production, desertification, weakest corn harvest in American history.

第二步：简要转述使用事实论据的相关细节和文段，转述主要细节和重点词汇，并针对引用给予一定的解释。

Step 3: Contribution

By presenting a logos argument in this manner, the writer gives the reader a clear and concise intellectual argument without inundating with so many facts and figures. Had the writer focused on facts and figures instead of the results, the reader would probably have lost sight of the whole point of the writing, which is to realize, recognize and rectify the situation as quickly as possible.

第三步：说明事实论据是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

The writer does give a slight nod towards a logos argument after reading these facts.

第四步：解释事实论据从诉诸于理的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合起来形成主体段如下：

This is a Logos argument, because it uses published authoritative fact as its basis. The writer cites credible sources (UN Climate Panel, USDA/FDA) in an effort to show the reader that this is not just a matter of opinion, but rather of considered and scientific fact. The author focuses on the effects that are the evidence of the climate changes being discussed — such as the reduction in global food production, desertification, weakest corn harvest in American history. By presenting a Logos argument in this manner, the writer gives the reader a clear and concise intellectual argument without inundating with so many facts and figures. Had the writer focused on facts and figures instead of the results, the reader would probably have lost sight of the whole point of the writing, which is to realize, recognize and rectify the situation as quickly as possible. The writer does give a slight nod towards a logos argument after reading these facts.

a. 定义：

以统计学数字或数据呈现的论据方式。经常出现在阅读材料中有调查或研究（study, research）的部分。

b. 识别：

So I was crestfallen on Monday, when a new report by Common Sense Media came out. It showed that 30 years ago, only 8 percent of 13-year-olds and 9 percent of 17-year-olds said that they "hardly ever" or never read for pleasure. Today, 22 percent of 13-year-olds and 27 percent of 17-year-olds say that. Fewer than 20 percent of 17-year-olds now read for pleasure "almost every day." Back in 1984, 31 percent did. What a marked and depressing change.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为数据论据，引用于官方机构并客观反映了一定的发展趋势。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了数据论据（Statistics），或者也可以提及它出自可信的机构。

Information

转述或直接引用数据论据的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料中数据论据所在的段落及其上下文来解析其作用和内涵。数据论据可能会包括统计数据、趋势数据和比较型数据，我们需要针对其特征进行解析。证明作者如何利用数据论据更有力度地证明了主旨的可靠性。

Effect

分析数据论据对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用数据论据让读者更精确清晰地认识到某个问题，并且通过数据论据增强理性和逻辑性从而达到更令人信服的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

precise, undeniable, irrefutable, direct, credible

The writer provides survey data as evidence to support his point that…

The statistics, which are collected in a scientific way, lend strong support to what the author maintains that…

例题

通过下面的例文学习如何对数据论据进行分析。

Early tech use has cognitive benefits as well. Although parenting experts have questioned the value of educational games — as Jim Taylor, author of Raising Generation Tech, puts it, "they're a load of crap ... meant to make money" — new studies have shown they can add real value. In a recent study by SRI, a nonprofit research firm, kids who played games like Samorost (solving puzzles) did 12% better on logic tests than those who did not. And at MIT's Education Arcade, playing the empire-building game Civilization piqued students' interest in history and was directly linked to an improvement in the quality of their history-class reports. The reason: engagement. On average, according to research cited by MIT, students can remember only 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear and 50% of what they see demonstrated. But when they're actually doing something themselves — in the virtual worlds on iPads or laptops — that retention rate skyrockets to 90%.

Step1: Recognition

In building up her case, the author first offers ample statistical studies to demonstrate how using technology benefits intellectual development.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了数据论据这一文体特征来支持孩子早期接触科技的重要性这一主旨。

Step 2: Information

She points to several indicators of academic achievement that reveal the ways in which technological exposure contributes to learning for the "tech-savviest [generation] in history." One study shows how "kids who played games like Samorost (solving puzzles) did 12% better on logic tests than those who did not" while another shows how students' participation "in the virtual worlds on iPads or laptops" allows their retention rate to skyrocket from less than 50% to 90%.

第二步：简要转述使用数据的相关细节和文段，节选主要细节和词汇，并针对引用给予一定的解释。

Step 3: Contribution ＋Step 4: Effect

Because the subjects of these studies are children who have improved in measurable areas from employing technology, the data logically lead the readers to the conclusion that technology should be embraced as educational tools for academic success.

第三步＋第四步：说明数据论据如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨，并解释数据论据从诉诸于理的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合起来形成主体段如下：

In building up her case, the author first offers ample statistical studies to demonstrate how using technology benefits intellectual development. She points to several indicators of academic achievement that reveal the ways in which technological exposure contributes to learning for the "tech-savviest [generation] in history." One study shows how "kids who played games like Samorost (solving puzzles) did 12% better on logic tests than those who did not" while another shows how students' participation "in the virtual worlds on iPads or laptops" allows their retention rate to skyrocket from less than 50% to 90%. Because the subjects of these studies are children who have improved in measurable areas from employing technology, the data logically lead the readers to the conclusion that technology should be embraced as educational tools for academic success.

a. 定义：

来自于某个领域的专家、书籍或机构的引言，一般是阅读材料中带有双引号的部分。

b. 识别：

That observation brought to mind a moment in "The Fault in Our Stars" when one of the protagonists says that sometimes, "You read a book and it fills you with this weird evangelical zeal, and you become convinced that the shattered world will never be put back together unless and until all living humans read the book."

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为引言论据，引用自某本著作中主人公的原话。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了引言论据（Expert Quotes）。

Information

转述或直接引用引言论据的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料中引言论据所在的段落及其上下文来解析其作用和内涵。可以解释引言中的修辞或暗指词的语义，但不能偏题到分析引言中的修辞或暗指词。应该重点证明作者是如何通过引言为论证主旨增加权威性，可信度和说服力。

Effect

分析引言论据对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用引言论据让读者更加信服，并且通过引言论据实现增强理性、可靠性和逻辑性的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

authoritative, expert, respected, weight, reliable, credible

The writer cites quotes from … in his writing to enhance the authenticity of…

The writer uses the conclusion from a … study as further evidence to support his earlier claim that…

例题

通过下面的例文，学习如何对专家引言进行分析。

But it's not that simple. While there are dangers inherent in access to Facebook, new research suggests that social-networking sites also offer unprecedented learning opportunities. "Online, kids can engage with specialized communities of interest," says Mimi Ito, an anthropologist at the University of California at Irvine who's studying how technology affects young adults. "They're no longer limited by what's offered in school."

The most convincing argument for early-age tech fluency, however, is more basic: staying competitive. "If you look at applying for college or a job, that's on the computer," says Shawn Jackson, principal of Spencer Tech, a public school in one of Chicago's lower-income neighborhoods. Ditto the essential skills for jobs in fast-growing sectors such as programming, engineering and biotechnology. "If we're not exposing our students to this stuff early,"Jackson continues, "they're going to be left behind."

Step 1: Recognition

The author incorporates expert opinions to persuade the audience of the value that technology provides over the long-run.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了权威引言这一文体特征来支持作者关于孩子早期使用科技的重要性的观点。

Step 2: Information

Anthropologists like Mimi Ito at the University of California at Irvine offers the view that online communities provide students with an avenue to acquire specialized interests that are beyond what is offered in the classroom. Shawn Jackson, principal of Spencer Tech, talks of how technology fosters the skills that prepare students for when they are applying for college or a job.

第二步：简要转述使用权威引言的相关细节和文段，包括转述具体人物的具体核心说法，并给予了一定的解释。

Step 3: Contribution

By presenting these refreshing expert viewpoints, the author enhances her argument to expand the benefits of technology to those that extend beyond the academic performance as measured by statistical studies.

第三步：说明权威引言是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

The readers are introduced to the significant life skills that technology can help children acquire for many years down the road.

第四步：解释权威引言从诉诸于理的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合起来形成主体段如下：

The author incorporates expert opinions to persuade the audience of the value that technology provides over the long-run. Anthropologists like Mimi Ito at the University of California at Irvine offers the view that online communities provide students with an avenue to acquire specialized interests that are beyond what is offered in the classroom. Shawn Jackson, principal of Spencer Tech, talks of how technology fosters the skills that prepare students for when they are applying for college or a job. By presenting these refreshing expert viewpoints, the author enhances her argument to expand the benefits of technology to those that extend beyond the academic performance as measured by statistical studies. The readers are introduced to the significant life skills that technology can help children acquire for many years down the road.

a. 定义：

讲述自己或他人的实际经历的论据方式，一般具有情节性，或者具备事件发生的时间、地点、起因和人物等要素。

b. 识别：

As an uncle I'm inconsistent about too many things. Birthdays, for example. My nephew Mark had one on Sunday, and I didn't remember — and send a text — until 10 p.m., by which point he was asleep.

School productions, too. I saw my niece Bella in Seussical: The Musical but missed The Wiz. She played Toto, a feat of trans-species transmogrification that not even Meryl, with all of her accents, has pulled off.

But about books, I'm steady. Relentless. I'm incessantly asking my nephews and nieces what they're reading and why they're not reading more. I'm reliably hurling novels at them, and also at friends' kids. I may well be responsible for 10 percent of all sales of The Fault in Our Stars, a teenage love story to be released as a movie next month.Never have I spent money with fewer regrets, because I believe in reading — not just in its power to transport but in its power to transform.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为轶事论据，有很强的情节性。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了轶事论据（Anecdote）。

Information

转述或直接引用轶事论据的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料中轶事论据所在的段落及其上下文意思，解析轶事中的一些细节或措辞所表达的含义或情感。

Effect

分析轶事论据对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何唤起读者对主旨的同感或共鸣，并且通过轶事论据使文章生动、有感染力，达到令人信服和情感共鸣的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

常用词汇及效果：

• 场景感和画面感：imagery, vivid, visualize, picture, scenarios, daily life, familiar

• 共鸣：consonance, responsive mood, have the same feeling with the author, bring the reader into…

• 情感影响： emotion, pathos

• 可信度和说服力：credibility, credence, credible

In telling this brief anecdote, the author…

By drawing in his readers with a personal encounter about…, the author means to…

例题

通过下面的例文，学习轶事的分析方法。

At my family's cabin on a Minnesota lake, I knew woods so dark that my hands disappeared before my eyes. I knew night skies in which meteors left smoky trails across sugary spreads of stars. But now, when 8 of 10 children born in the United States will never know a sky dark enough for the Milky Way, I worry we are rapidly losing night's natural darkness before realizing its worth. This winter solstice, as we cheer the days' gradual movement back toward light, let us also remember the irreplaceable value of darkness.

Step 1: Recognition ＋Step 2: Information

第一步＋第二步：识别此文段中使用了轶事论据这一文体特征来支持主旨，即保护自然黑暗的重要性，并进而直接引用了轶事的相关细节和文段，然后针对重点信息的作用给予了一定阐释。

Step 3: Contribution

He builds his argument for the preservation of natural darkness by reminiscing for his readers a first-hand encounter that proves the "irreplaceable value of darkness."

第三步：说明轶事论据是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

This anecdote provides a baseline of sorts for readers to find credence with the author's claims.

第四步：解释轶事论据从诉诸于情的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合形成主体段如下：

a. 定义：

这是一种理由关系的论证方式，一般可以一种结果对应多种原因（reasons），或者一种原因对应多种结果（consequences）。

b. 识别：

The reason: engagement.On average, according to research cited by MIT, students can remember only 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear and 50% of what they see demonstrated. But when they're actually doing something themselves-in the virtual worlds on iPads or laptops-that retention rate skyrockets to 90%.

The most convincing argument for early-age tech fluency, however, is more basic: staying competitive. "If you look at applying for college or a job, that's on the computer," says Shawn Jackson, principal of Spencer Tech, a public school in one of Chicago's lower-income neighborhoods. Ditto the essential skills for jobs in fast-growing sectors such as programming, engineering and biotechnology. "If we're not exposing our students to this stuff early," Jackson continues, "they're going to be left behind." ...

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为理由论证，相当于提出分论点。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了理由论证（Reasons）。

Information

逐条转述或直接引用每个部分理由论证的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料中的主要观点来逐条解析每个部分理由论证的作用和内涵。证明作者如何利用充分的理由证明主旨的合理性。

Effect

分析理由论证对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用理由论证来让读者更深刻地感受到某个问题，并且通过理由论证增强理性和逻辑性，从而达到更令人信服的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

The author uses his words and research to reason with the reader and explain to them why....

These four ideas are successfully connected and convince the reader to....

例题

通过下面的例文，学习理由论证的分析方法。

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, plastic bags, sacks, and wraps of all kinds (not just grocery bags) make up only about 1.6 percent of all municipal solid waste materials. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) bags, which are the most common kind of plastic grocery bags, make up just 0.3 percent of this total.

The claims that plastic bags are worse for the environment than paper bags or cotton reusable bags are dubious at best. In fact, compared to paper bags, plastic grocery bags produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions, require 70 percent less energy to make, generate 80 percent less waste, and utilize less than 4 percent of the amount of water needed to manufacture them. This makes sense because plastic bags are lighter and take up less space than paper bags.

Reusable bags come with their own set of problems. They, too, have a larger carbon footprint than plastic bags. Even more disconcerting are the findings of several studies that plastic bag bans lead to increased health problems due to food contamination from bacteria that remain in the reusable bags. A November 2012 statistical analysis by University of Pennsylvania law professor Jonathan Klick and George Mason University law professor and economist Joshua D. Wright found that San Franciscos plastic bag ban in 2007 resulted in a subsequent spike in hospital emergency room visits due to E. coli, salmonella, and Campylobacter-related intestinal infectious diseases. The authors conclude that the ban even accounts for several additional deaths in the city each year from such infections.

The description of plastic grocery bags as "single-use" bags is another misnomer. The vast majority of people use them more than once, whether for lining trash bins or picking up after their dogs. (And still other bags are recycled.) Since banning plastic bags also means preventing their additional uses as trash bags and pooper scoopers, one unintended consequence of the plastic bag ban would likely be an increase in plastic bag purchases for these other purposes. This is just what happened in Ireland in 2002 when a 15 Euro cent ($0.20) tax imposed on plastic shopping bags led to a 77 percent increase in the sale of plastic trash can liner bags.

And then there are the economic costs. The plastic bag ban would threaten the roughly 2,000 California jobs in the plastic bag manufacturing and recycling industry, although, as noted in the Irish example above, they might be able to weather the storm if they can successfully switch to producing other types of plastic bags. In addition, taxpayers will have to pony up for the added bureaucracy, and the higher regulatory costs foisted upon bag manufacturers and retailers will ultimately be borne by consumers in the form of price increases.

Step 1: Recognition

Summers uses his words and research to reason with the reader and explain to them why plastic bags really are the correct choice.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了理由论证这一文体特征，支持塑料袋不该被废除这一观点（即诉求的结果）。

Step 2: Information ＋Step 3: Contribution

A vast majority of people are misled about all of the waste that plastic bags cause when Summers writes, "... plastic bags, sacks, and wraps of all kinds (not just grocery bags) make up only about 1.6 percent of all municipal solid waste materials." This number is definitely lower that we all assume, going into this passage, and we are left surprised. Using reusable bags is a solution that others have come up with to attempt to create less waste, however Summers delivers an appealing argument plastic bag bans lead to increased health problems due to food contamination from bacteria that remain in the reusable bags. This excerpt creates another claim that leaves the reader wondering if reusable bags are really worth it. These past two claims are connected well because they both draw the reader back to the idea of using plastic bags.

Another claim by Summers, "one unintended consequence of the plastic bag would likely be an increase in plastic bag purchases for these other purposes." These "other purposes" can be for lining trash bins, picking up after your dog on a walk, collecting kitty litter, and many more things we use plastic bags for. When the author brings in all of these additional uses of the plastic bag, we see the significance of the plastic bag and how much money we save by reusing them. A final claim by Summers, "The plastic bag ban would threaten the roughly 2,000 California jobs in the plastic bag manufacturing and recycling industry..." Now the reader almost feels guilty because they do not want to take away jobs of others and the fact that some people even depend on shoppers using plastic bags. These two final claims are well connected because the author stressed the economic benefits of using plastic bags. Not only are these bags saving you money, but they also are keeping some people in work.

第二步＋第三步：简要转述支持塑料袋不该被废除的四个理由及相关的细节，边转述主要细节和重点词汇边针对引用给予一定的解释，说明了这些理由是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。

有时候RICE原则不需要步骤分明，可以融合在文章之中。比如，上面的段落就包括了转述信息（Information）和联系主旨（Contribution）两个要素。

Step 4: Effect

These four ideas are successfully connected and convince the reader to use plastic bags over paper bags and other types of reusable bags.

第四步：解释这些理由论证从诉诸于理的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合起来形成主体段如下：

Summers uses his words and research to reason with the reader and explain to them why plastic bags really are the correct choice. A vast majority of people are misled about all of the waste that plastic bags cause when Summers writes, "... plastic bags, sacks, and wraps of all kinds (not just grocery bags) make up only about 1.6 percent of all municipal solid waste materials." This number is definitely lower that we all assume, going into this passage, and we are left surprised. Using reusable bags is a solution that others have come up with to attempt to create less waste, however Summers delivers an appealing argument plastic bag bans lead to increased health problems due to food contamination from bacteria that remain in the reusable bags. This excerpt creates another claim that leaves the reader wondering if reusable bags are really worth it. These past two claims are connected well because they both draw the reader back to the idea of using plastic bags. Another claim by Summers, "one unintended consequence of the plastic bag would likely be an increase in plastic bag purchases for these other purposes." These "other purposes" can be for lining trash bins, picking up after your dog on a walk, collecting kitty litter, and many more things we use plastic bags for. When the author brings in all of these additional uses of the plastic bag, we see the significance of the plastic bag and how much money we save by reusing them. A final claim by Summers, "The plastic bag ban would threaten the roughly 2,000 California jobs in the plastic bag manufacturing and recycling industry..." Now the reader almost feels guilty because they do not want to take away jobs of others and the fact that some people even depend on shoppers using plastic bags. These two final claims are well connected because the author stressed the economic benefits of using plastic bags. Not only are these bags saving you money, but they also are keeping some people in work. These four ideas are successfully connected and convince the reader to use plastic bags over paper bags and other types of reusable bags.

a. 定义：

利用严密的逻辑或论据证明对方的观点或某一分论点不合理，有时也会提出自己的立论。

b. 识别：

What kind of a problem is a library? It's clear that for many people it is not a problem at all, only a kind of obsolescence. At the extreme pole of this view is the technocrat's total faith: with every book in the world online, what need could there be for the physical reality? This kind of argument thinks of the library as a function rather than a plurality of individual spaces. But each library is a different kind of problem and "the Internet" is no more a solution for all of them than it is their universal death knell.Each morning I struggle to find a seat in the packed university library in which I write this, despite the fact every single student in here could be at home in front of their MacBook browsing Google Books. And Kilburn Library — also run by Brent Council but situated, despite its name, in affluent Queen's Park — is not only thriving but closed for refurbishment. Kensal Rise is being closed not because it is unpopular but because it is unprofitable, this despite the fact that the friends of Kensal Rise library are willing to run their library themselves (if All Souls College, Oxford, which owns the library, will let them.) Meanwhile it is hard not to conclude that Willesden Green is being mutilated not least because the members of the council see the opportunity for a sweet real estate deal.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为反驳论证，作者先提出反方观点再驳斥并立论。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了反驳论证（Rebuttal），或者也可以写明这段运用了论证的手法（Reasoning）。

Information

转述或直接引用反驳论证的主要信息。

Contribution

找出反方观点（Counterargument），分析作者是如何利用有效论证来反驳反方观点并立论的。反驳论证可以引导读者信服主旨并使得对方观点无法立足。

Effect

分析反驳论证对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用反驳论证来让读者更信服自己的观点，并且通过反驳论证实现增强理性和逻辑性的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

To acknowledge the counterargument raised here, the author refutes the claim that…

The author recognizes counterargument against his/her argument, he/she uses powerful evidences to make a rebuttal.

a. 定义：

把两种对应的事物进行对照和比较的论证方法。

b. 识别：

The British may continue in their constipated fashion to cling to what they have so crudely amputated, but the other museums and galleries of Europe have seen the artistic point of re-unification and restored to Athens what was looted in the years when Greece was defenseless.Professor Pandermalis proudly showed me an exquisite marble head, of a youth shouldering a tray, that fits beautifully into panel No. 5 of the north frieze. It comes courtesy of the collection of the Vatican. Then there is the sculpted foot of the goddess Artemis, from the frieze that depicts the assembly of Olympian gods, by courtesy of the Salinas Museum, in Palermo. From Heidelberg comes another foot, this time of a young man playing a lyre, and it fits in nicely with the missing part on panel No. 8. Perhaps these acts of cultural generosity, and tributes to artistic wholeness, could "set a precedent," too?

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为对比论证。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了对比或比较论证（Contrast/Comparison）。

Information

转述或直接引用对比或比较论证的主要信息。

Contribution

找出对比双方的反义词或对比成分并结合阅读材料信息进行概括分析。通过强调差距和不同来说服读者看清对比双方的优劣或深刻理解主旨。

Effect

分析对比或比较论证对读者产生的效果，即作者如何用对比或比较论证来让读者更深刻地感受到某个问题，并且通过对比或比较论证实现增强理性和逻辑性的效果，有时对比论证也会给读者带来情感冲击。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

Comparison: weigh, dissimilarity, rational, clear

Contrast: opposite, emphasize, distinct

The author employs a distinct contrast with…

This tool is utilized to establish an emphasis on...by highlighting…

例题

通过下面的例文，学习对比与比较论证的分析方法。

A strange thing has happened in the American arts during the past quarter century. While income rose to unforeseen levels, college attendance ballooned, and access to information increased enormously, the interest young Americans showed in the arts — and especially literature — actually diminished.

According to the 2002 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, a population study designed and commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts (and executed by the US Bureau of the Census), arts participation by Americans has declined for eight of the nine major forms that are measured.... The declines have been most severe among younger adults (ages 18–24). The most worrisome finding in the 2002 study, however, is the declining percentage of Americans, especially young adults, reading literature.

Step 1＋Step 2: Recognition+Information

第一步＋第二步：识别此文段中使用了对比论证这一文体特征来支持主旨，即：文学阅读对美国青年的重要性，并进而转述了对比论证的相关细节和文段，然后针对重点信息的作用给予了一定阐释。

Step 3: Contribution

This tool is utilized to establish an emphasis on his primary point by highlighting it as a negative development relative to other changes in American life.

第三步：说明对比论证是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

This literary tool serves a strong purpose by acting as a vehicle to draw the audience into the principle issue addressed by the writing.

第四步：解释对比论证从诉诸于情的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合形成主体段如下：

In his introduction paragraph, Gioia employs a distinct contrast with several listed positive changes in American life such as increased college attendance and increases in income, with the focus of his article: the fact that the interest young Americans show in art has declined. This tool is utilized to establish an emphasis on his primary point by highlighting it as a negative development relative to other changes in American life. This literary tool serves a strong purpose by acting as a vehicle to draw the audience into the principle issue addressed by the writing.

习题

Analyze the following texts.

Text 1

Forget everything you thought you knew about the sedate and rarefied world of beekeeping. Bees are big business. In 2006, a Cornell University study found that in the United States of America, bees annually pollinate more than $14 billion worth of seed and crops — mostly fruits, vegetables, and nuts. In the United Kingdom they are responsible for the pollination of around £200 million worth of food crops.

Step 1: Recognition

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 2: Information

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 3: Contribution

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 4: Effect

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Text 2

Starting in the autumn of 2006，beekeepers in several different states across the US began reporting unusually large losses in their bee colonies, ranging from 50 to 90 percent. These outbreaks, now known collectively as Colony Collapse Disorder, did not seem to be attributable to any specific cause of stress or disease. Since then, there has been a flurry of media stories filled with dramatic and dire predictions about how this phenomenon is bound to devastate the nation's entire food supply, as honeybees are one of the major insects responsible for pollinating a variety of agricultural crops grown in the US. However, the most commonly used crops, wheat and rice, do not depend on pollination by honeybees. There have also been comparisons of the honeybee colony losses to the proverbial canary in the coal mine, with some pundits arguing that the vanishing bees are a harbinger of a coming environmental disaster. However, a careful look at the real numbers behind the phenomenon shows that this so-called "crisis," as well as the commentary surrounding it, has been significantly exaggerated.

Step 1: Recognition

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 2: Information

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 3: Contribution

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 4: Effect

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

答案

Text1

Step 1: Recognition

This is logos, because it is uses factual data from authoritative sources to influence the reader's opinion.

Step 2: Information

The writer gives us information from an academic study that measures the relevance of the information in the form of financial impact. Although bees are, obviously, pollinating plants and not money, the writer uses the factual financial data "$14 billion" and "£200 million" as a means of reflecting the results of the bee's activity and their importance to the food supply of both the USA and UK.

Step 3: Contribution

This credible data well supports the main claim that bee's activity is indispensable to human beings.

Step 4: Effect

This jolting statement is an effective lead-in to the logos position of factual data of the financial and economic impact. The writer's strong evidence leaves the reader no other alternative than to respect the financial impact of bees to the national economy.

Text 2

Step 1: Recognition

This is a logos argument, because its primary support comes from facts and specific data.

Step 2: Information

The vast majority of the piece is dedicated to fact and factual data. The paragraph starts off by telling us that as much as 90% of some bee colonies have died in multiple locations across the US, and that this has been going on since 2006. He then focuses on the Logos argument to support his own position by reminding the reader that the most common US crops, wheat and rice, do not use bees.

Step 3: Contribution

By presenting a logos argument in this manner, the writer gives the reader a clear and concise intellectual argument without inundating with so many facts and figures.

Step 4: Effect

By using only logos structure to support his own arguments, he makes his position appear to be the most legitimate and the most well thought out.

a. 定义：

把本体比作有可比性的喻体的修辞手法。其中明喻有喻词，而暗喻没有喻词。

b. 识别：

Since I am a preacher by calling, I suppose it is not surprising that I have ... major reasons for bringing Vietnam into the field of my moral vision. There is at the outset a very obvious and almost facile connection between the war in Vietnam and the struggle I, and others, have been waging in America. A few years ago there was a shining moment in that struggle. It seemed as if there was a real promise of hope for the poor — both black and white —through the poverty program. There were experiments, hopes, new beginnings. Then came the buildup in Vietnam, and I watched this program broken and eviscerated, as if it were some idle political plaything of a society gone mad on war, and I knew that America would never invest the necessary funds or energies in rehabilitation of its poor so long as adventures like Vietnam continued to draw men and skills and money like some demonic destructive suction tube. So, I was increasingly compelled to see the war as an enemy of the poor and to attack it as such.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为比喻修辞。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了比喻修辞（Simile/Metaphor）。

Information

转述或直接引用比喻修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

分析喻体的内涵意思并联系喻体和本体解析作者的意图。分析作者是如何通过激发读者的联想从而使得读者更容易理解主旨的。

Effect

分析比喻修辞对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何唤起读者的兴趣，如何通过比喻论证使文章生动、有感染力，从而达到令人信服和产生情感共鸣的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

imagery, vivid, similarity, connection

Through drawing in his readers with a ..., the author....

In comparing A to B, ....

例题

通过下面的例文，学习比喻修辞的分析方法。

Step 1＋Step 2: Recognition+Information

Throughout the passage, the author uses a series of similes and metaphors in order to provide an assistance upon his argument around whether America should intervene the Vietnam war.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了比喻修辞这一文体特征来支持主旨，即：美国应该阻止越战。

第二步：转述了比喻修辞的相关细节和文段，然后针对重点信息的作用给予了一定阐释。

Step 3: Contribution＋Step 4: Effect

These analogies, metaphors and similes, using figurative languages, compares the high death rate fact of the Vietnam war to a suction tube which destroys the American family, at the same time, with the description languages of the similarity between the blacks not getting enough rights than the whites to shackles, the author tries to convey to the audience and create a consonance between the readers that it is morally wrong for America to join the Vietnam war with army force while the Black and Whites are not even getting equal rights. These analogies also generate a dramatized living condition of Americans, describing that the war is their enemy as they are poor and their sons and husbands are all gone with high death rates. As a result, King successfully persuades the audience that the Vietnam war is devastating their lives and Americans should not involve in it.

第三步＋第四步：说明对比论证是如何帮助读者更好地理解主旨的。解释对比论证从诉诸于情的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合形成主体段如下：

Throughout the passage, the author uses a series of similes and metaphors in order to provide an assistance upon his argument around whether America should intervene the Vietnam war.

These analogies vividly describe how the Vietnam war is destroying the American families: "Vietnam continued to draw men and skills and money like some demonic destructive suction tube; the war is the enemy to poor; shackles black people wear". These analogies, metaphors and similes, using figurative languages, compares the high death rate fact of the Vietnam war to a suction tube which destroys the American family, at the same time, with the description languages of the similarity between the blacks not getting enough rights than the whites to shackles, the author tries to convey to the audience and create a consonance between the readers that it is morally wrong for America to join the Vietnam war with army force while the Black and Whites are not even getting equal rights. These analogies also generate a dramatized living condition of Americans, describing that the war is their enemy as they are poor and their sons and husbands are all gone with high death rates. As a result, King successfully persuades the audience that the Vietnam war is devastating their lives and Americans should not involve in it.

a. 定义：

反问是用疑问的形式表达确定的意思。

b. 识别：

Rules like these rub many people the wrong way because they represent government intrusion into even the most minute of personal decisions. Do we really want the government telling us what kind of vacuum cleaner or light bulb to buy? Don't policy makers have better things to think about? Backers of such regulations counter that, when people buy powerful vacuum cleaners and incandescent bulbs, they don't take into account the spillover costs they impose on others by contributing to climate change.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为反问修辞。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了反问修辞（Rhetorical Question）。

Information

转述或直接引用反问修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

分析反问中暗藏的答案和引发思考的点。反问修辞能够增强主旨中传达的质疑，引发读者深思。

Effect

分析反问修辞对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何激发读者的感情，反问修辞能够增强文章的气势和说服力，并唤起读者的反思和行动。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

inspiring, inquiry, stir the feeling, ponderance, emotion

He asks the readers to consider....

By asking this question, the author draws out....

例题

通过下面的例文，学习反问修辞的分析方法。

In today's crowded, louder, more fast-paced world, night's darkness can provide solitude, quiet and stillness, qualities increasingly in short supply. Every religious tradition has considered darkness invaluable for a soulful life, and the chance to witness the universe has inspired artists, philosophers and everyday stargazers since time began. In a world awash with electric light...how would Van Gogh have given the world his "Starry Night"? Who knows what this vision of the night sky might inspire in each of us, in our children or grandchildren?

Step 1: Recognition

Bogard makes subtle yet efficient use of rhetorical questioning to persuade his audience that natural darkness preservation is essential.

第一步：识别此文段中使用了反问修辞这一文体特征来支持主旨，即：保护自然黑暗的重要性。

Step 2: Information

He asks the readers to consider "what the vision of the night sky might inspire in each of us, in our children or grandchildren?" in a way that brutally plays to each of our emotions. By asking this question, Bogard draws out heartfelt ponderance from his readers about the affecting power of an untainted night sky. This rhetorical question tugs at the readers' heartstrings; while the reader may have seen an unobscured night skyline before, the possibility that their child or grandchild will never get the chance sways them to see as Bogard sees.

第二步：直接引用使用反问修辞的相关细节和文段，然后针对重点信息的作用给予了一定阐释。

Step 3: Contribution

By doing this, Bogard develops his argument, adding power to the idea that the issue of maintaining natural darkness is relevant and multifaceted.

第三步：说明文中使用的反问修辞是如何帮助读者产生地理解主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

This strategy is definitively an appeal to pathos, forcing the audience to directly face an emotionally-charged inquiry that will surely spur some kind of response.

第四步：解释文中使用的反问修辞从诉诸于情的角度对读者造成的效果。

最后四者结合形成主体段如下：

Bogard makes subtle yet efficient use of rhetorical questioning to persuade his audience that natural darkness preservation is essential. He asks the readers to consider "what the vision of the night sky might inspire in each of us, in our children or grandchildren?" in a way that brutally plays to each of our emotions. By asking this question, Bogard draws out heartfelt ponderance from his readers about the affecting power of an untainted night sky. This rhetorical question tugs at the readers' heartstrings; while the reader may have seen an unobscured night skyline before, the possibility that their child or grandchild will never get the chance sways them to see as Bogard sees. By doing this, Bogard develops his argument, adding power to the idea that the issue of maintaining natural darkness is relevant and multifaceted. This strategy is definitively an appeal to pathos, forcing the audience to directly face an emotionally-charged inquiry that will surely spur some kind of response.

a. 定义：

意义相近、结构相同或相似的词组或句子重复出现的一种修辞方式，有加强语气的效果。

b. 识别：

My [next] reason moves to an even deeper level of awareness, for it grows out of my experience in the ghettoes of the North over the last three years — especially the last three summers. As I have walked among the desperate, rejected, and angry young men, I have told them that Molotov cocktails and rifles would not solve their problems. I have tried to offer them my deepest compassion while maintaining my conviction that social change comes most meaningfully through nonviolent action. But they ask — and rightly so — what about Vietnam? They ask if our own nation wasn't using massive doses of violence to solve its problems, to bring about the changes it wanted. Their questions hit home, and I knew that I could never again raise my voice against the violence of the oppressed in the ghettos without having first spoken clearly to the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today — my own government. For the sake of those boys, for the sake of this government, for the sake of the hundreds of thousands trembling under our violence, I cannot be silent.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为排比修辞。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了排比修辞（Parallelism）。

Information

转述或直接引用排比修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

找出相同或重复的要素和主题。排比修辞能够增加对主旨的论述力度，可以号召行动。

Effect

分析排比修辞对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何唤起读者的情感，如何让语气更加强烈从而实现令人信服的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

highlight, power, call for action, strong tone/rhyme

The repetition of "…" can add power to….

By using the similar structure "…" the readers can feel….

a. 定义：

援引典故、谚语、成语等作为喻体间接提及本体的修辞手法。

b. 识别：

There has been a bitter argument about the legitimacy of the British Museum's deal. I've written a whole book about this controversy and won't oppress you with all the details, but would just make this one point. If the Mona Lisa had been sawed in two during the Napoleonic Wars and the separated halves had been acquired by different museums in, say, St. Petersburg and Lisbon, would there not be a general wish to see what they might look like if re-united? If you think my analogy is overdrawn, consider this: the body of the goddess Iris is at present in London, while her head is in Athens. The front part of the torso of Poseidon is in London, and the rear part is in Athens. And so on. This is grotesque.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为用典修辞。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了用典修辞（Allusion）。

Information

转述或直接引用用典修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

解释典故发生的背景和具体事件，找出现实与典故的关系，让读者在拥有共同历史背景（common knowledge）的情况下更容易理解主旨。

Effect

分析用典修辞对读者产生的效果，即分析用典修辞如何增加读者的联想，如何使文章生动、有感染力，从而达到令人信服的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

connection, similarity, common knowledge

By first referencing…, the author establishes that…

The author alludes to… as…

例题

通过下面例文，学习用典修辞的分析方法。

It doesn't have to be this way. Light pollution is readily within our ability to solve, using new lighting technologies and shielding existing lights. Already, many cities and towns across North America and Europe are changing to LED streetlights, which offer dramatic possibilities for controlling wasted light. Other communities are finding success with simply turning off portions of their public lighting after midnight. Even Paris, the famed "city of light," which already turns off its monument lighting after 1 a.m., will this summer start to require its shops, offices and public buildings to turn off lights after 2 a.m. Though primarily designed to save energy, such reductions in light will also go far in addressing light pollution. But we will never truly address the problem of light pollution until we become aware of the irreplaceable value and beauty of the darkness we are losing.

Step 1: Recognition

Bogard's argument is also furthered by his use of allusion to art — Van Gogh's "Starry Night" — and modern history — Paris' reputation as "city of light".

第一步：识别此文段中使用了用典修辞这一文体特征来支持主旨，即：保护自然黑暗的重要性。作者分别选取了文章中两处用典修辞的信息，在转述信息部分分别给予了解释。

Step 2: Information+Step 3: Contribution

By first referencing "Starry Night", a painting generally considered to be undoubtedly beautiful, Bogard establishes that the natural magnificence of stars in a dark sky is definite. A world absent of excess artificial light could potentially hold the key to a grand, glorious night sky like Van Gogh's according to the writer. This urges the readers to weigh the disadvantages of our world consumed by unnatural, vapid lighting. Furthermore, Bogard's alludes to Paris as "the famed ‘city of light'". He then goes on to state how Paris has taken steps to exercise more sustainable lighting practices. By doing this, Bogard creates a dichotomy between Paris' traditionally alluded-to name and the reality of what Paris is becoming — no longer "the city of light", but more so "the city of light…before 2 AM". This furthers his line of argumentation because it shows how steps can be and are being taken to preserve natural darkness. It shows that even a city that is literally famous for being constantly lit can practically address light pollution in a manner that preserves the beauty of both the city itself and the universe as a whole.

第二步+第三步：分别转述文中两处用典修辞的相关细节和文段，然后针对重点信息的作用给予了一定阐释，说明文中的用典修辞是如何帮助读者更好地理解文章主旨的。

Step 4: Effect

This strategy appeals to the reader's emotion because these events are historically or culturally significant. The readers in general would understand the claim more clearly.

第四步：解释文中使用的用典修辞从诉诸于情的角度对读者产生的效果。

最后四者结合形成主体段如下：

Bogard's argument is also furthered by his use of allusion to art — Van Gogh's "Starry Night" — and modern history — Paris' reputation as "The City of Light". By first referencing "Starry Night", a painting generally considered to be undoubtedly beautiful, Bogard establishes that the natural magnificence of stars in a dark sky is definite. A world absent of excess artificial light could potentially hold the key to a grand, glorious night sky like Van Gogh's according to the writer. This urges the readers to weigh the disadvantages of our world consumed by unnatural, vapid lighting. Furthermore, Bogard's alludes to Paris as "the famed ‘city of light'". He then goes on to state how Paris has taken steps to exercise more sustainable lighting practices. By doing this, Bogard creates a dichotomy between Paris' traditionally alluded-to name and the reality of what Paris is becoming — no longer "the city of light", but more so "the city of light…before 2 AM". This furthers his line of argumentation because it shows how steps can be and are being taken to preserve natural darkness. It shows that even a city that is literally famous for being constantly lit can practically address light pollution in a manner that preserves the beauty of both the city itself and the universe as a whole. This strategy appeals to the reader's emotion because these events are historically or culturally significant. The readers in general would understand the claim more clearly.

a. 定义：

将不具备人的感情和性格的事物人格化。

b. 识别：

More than a decade ago, [my wife] Rosalynn and I had the fortunate opportunity to camp and hike in these regions of the Arctic Refuge. During bright July days, we walked along ancient caribou trails and studied the brilliant mosaic of wildflowers, mosses, and lichens that hugged the tundra. There was a timeless quality about this great land. As the never-setting sun circled above the horizon, we watched muskox, those shaggy survivors of the Ice Age, lumber along braided rivers that meander toward the Beaufort Sea.

本段阅读材料中的下划线部分即为拟人修辞。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了拟人修辞（Personification）。

Information

转述或直接引用拟人修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

找出使用拟人修辞的部分，分析人与物的相似点。拟人修辞可以让读者建立更强烈的形象感，激发读者的某种情绪，从而更好地理解主旨。

Effect

分析拟人修辞对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何唤起读者的兴趣，如何使文章生动、熟悉，从而让读者产生同感。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

empathy, imagery, vivid, personify, emotion

Through adding….to….

By utilizing the word like….

a. 定义：

为了达到某种特殊的效果而夸大陈述。

b. 识别：

I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.

这句话运用的即是夸张的修辞手法。

c. 分析步骤：

Recognition

在主题句中写明本段使用了夸张修辞（Hyperbole）。

Information

转述或直接引用夸张修辞的主要信息。

Contribution

结合阅读材料解析夸张的程度和含义。使用夸张修辞能够帮助强调主旨。

Effect

分析夸张修辞对读者产生的效果，即解读其如何增强论证语气，并且实现使文章生动和令人信服的效果。

d. 常用词汇及句型：

emphasize, level, intensify

The author employs hyperbole to underscore…

The author's hyperbolic language makes…

By exaggerating the fact that…, the author…

习题

Analyze the following texts.

Text 1

Ever since Edison invented the phonograph cylinder, in 1877，people have been assessing what the medium of recording has done for and to the art of music. Inevitably, the conversation has veered toward rhetorical extremes. Sousa was a pioneering spokesman for the party of doom, which was later filled out by various reactionaries, contrarians, and Luddites. In the opposite corner are the Utopians, who argue that technology has not imprisoned music but liberated it, bringing the art of the elite to the masses and the art of the margins to the center. Before Edison came along, the Utopians say, Beethoven's symphonies could be heard only in select concert halls. Now the recordings carry the man from Bonn to the comers of the earth, summoning the throng hailed in the "Ode to Joy"："Be embraced, millions!" Glenn Gould, after renouncing live performance in 1964, predicted that within the century the public concert would disappear into the electronic ether, with a largely beneficial effect on musical culture.

Step 1: Recognition

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Step 2: Information

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Step 3: Contribution

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Step 4: Effect

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Text 2

The recent trends in the global climate should serve as a wake-up call to us all. It is no longer possible to deny the claims that our planet is undergoing a warming trend, and whether or not humans are the cause is at this point not important. What's important is that we immediately take strong measures to combat the problem. If we don't take immediate measures to stop or even slow global warming, those who survive the rising sea levels will slowly cook to death like the proverbial frog in the frying pan. To continue to ignore this problem would make us as dumb as the frog who mistook a frying pan for a pond.

Step 1: Recognition

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Step 2: Information

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Step 3: Contribution

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Step 4: Effect

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Text 3

Having discovered much of my favorite music through LPs and CDs, I am not about to join the lamenting party. Modern urban environments are often so soulless or ugly that I'm grateful for the humanizing touch of electronic sound. But neither can I accept Gould's slashing futurism. I want to be aware of technology's effects, positive and negative. I want a pragmatic theory that mediates between live performance and reproduction, without either apocalyptic screeching or corporate hype. Fortunately, scholars and critics have been methodically exploring this terrain for many decades, trying to figure out exactly what happens when we listen to music with no musicians in the room. They have reached no unshakable conclusions, but they give us most of the conceptual tools we need in order to listen with the alertness — and the ambivalence — that this magical medium demands.

Step 1: Recognition

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Step 2: Information

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Step 3: Contribution

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 4: Effect

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Text 4

Something quite extraordinary happened in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries: the diversified intellectual explosion called the Enlightenment. Philosophers, natural scientists, artists and political scientists created a revolution in thought based on equal rights for men and the freedom to reason without constraint. Admittedly, it was a relative equality, with some Enlightenment philosophers mistakenly placing white men at the apex of society. But, as a general rule, the core message of the Enlightenment was the need to create a global civilization with shared moral values. This overarching intellectual framework was far removed from traditional religious precepts. In fact, the Enlightenment declared war on the excesses of religion and blind nationalism. Adam Smith, for example, saw patriotism extending beyond one's own country to the great society of mankind. Immanuel Kant called this "global patriotism." We can identify the influence of these ideas in none other than Albert Einstein, who believed in a need to abolish international borders. "In my opinion there is no other salvation for civilization and even for the human race than the creation of an international government with the security on the basis of law," he declared in a September 1945 interview. When we revisit these ideas today, we notice that the globalization of free-flowing information has realized part of the Enlightenment program. Political frontiers still stand, while ideas move at light speed across the planet. There is an emerging perspective, that of the planetary citizen. Will this lead to a new Enlightenment? Or are the same age-old rifts simply going to get amplified by the hundreds of millions of anonymous voices claiming authority over the Web? Should we spend our time considering whether every opinion is equally valid or should we aim collectively for some higher goal?

Step 1: Recognition

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Step 2: Information

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Step 3: Contribution

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Step 4: Effect

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答案

Text 1

Step 1: Recognition

This paragraph supports the central thesis by allusion to appeal to the reader's emotion.

Step 2: Information

In this paragraph the author places the central thesis in a historical context. By alluding to this, he affords his thesis the gravity of a long running concern. He notes that the two sides of the concern, "the party of doom" and the "Utopians," have often been carried to extremes by their view.

Step 3: Contribution

By giving Sousa equal weight with a differing point of view, for the first time in the essay, we have the impression that the author himself may hold a more nuanced position. In this paragraph the author tempers the views of Sousa by comparing "the party of doom" with the "Utopians" who see recorded music as bringing great benefits.

Step 4: Effect

Although the reader is likely to assume through the first two paragraphs that the author is aligned with Sousa, we have some evidence that the author carries a more nuanced view. Furthermore, he notes some of the benefits of recorded music which can share the genius of Beethoven far and wide.

Text 2

Step 1: Recognition

This is a pathos argument. The writer uses imagery and simile to create a sense of urgency in the reader.

Step 2: Information

The writer uses seemingly contradictory terms by referencing the need to "immediately" take action to avoid "slowly" cooking to death. By doing so, he acknowledges the fact that the answer to global warming is not an instant one, but one that will take time to implement, and that implementation should happen as quickly as possible so that improvement can come as quickly as possible.

Step 3: Contribution

By using the simile of "slowly cooking to death", the writer is appealing to the readers' sense of desire to avoid physical pain. By using the comparison of the "frog who mistook the frying pan for a pond", the writer is appealing to the readers' desire to not be considered unintelligent.

Step 4: Effect

The strategy can effectively arouse the reader's awareness of the current situation.

Text 3

Step 1: Recognition

This is a pathos argument. The writer is appealing to the readers' emotions and uses verbiage consistent with giving a positive impression of recorded music.

Step 2: Information+Step 3: Contribution+Step 4: Effect

The writer's word choice is powerful. He reminds us that live music is sometimes hard to find in cities. He does this by referring to "urban" cites being "soulless" and "ugly". By saying he is "relieved" and "grateful" for the "humanizing" resource of electronic music, he's giving the impression of receiving limited comfort in a place where comfort is rare. At the same time, he doesn't want to totally discount the value of live performance, but rather specifically states the importance of a "pragmatic" and balanced perspective that takes both the good and bad into account. By saying "Fortunately", he shows his appreciation for others who have continued to research into learning about this.

Text 4

Step 1: Recognition

This is a pathos argument. The overall attitude and presentation, including word choice, is one that targets emotion, and not just empirical thought.

Step 2: Information

The writer is clearly making an emotional appeal. He does this through selective choice of vocabulary. He wants us to see that humanity is at the door of an important opportunity — the opportunity to once again advance intellectualism and equal society as was done during the Enlightenment. By calling the Enlightenment a "diversified intellectual explosion", he is creating the image of chaos, but one that bring intelligence on many levels. By calling it a "revolution" and "freedom to reason without constraint", the writer is insinuating (and justfully so) that the existing situation at the time was very much not that way, that the existing environment was controlling and suppressing of free thought. The writer points out that the Enlightenment "declared war" on the existing control of religion and nationalism, and puts both of these things in a very negative light, offering them no redemptive qualities at all. The writer then transitions into a comparison of the internet with the Enlightenment, in that the unhampered flow of information transcends nationalities and political alliances.

Step 3: Contribution

The overall contribution is to make the reader feel warned about the dangers of allowing too much control over information flow on the internet.

Step 4: Effect

The argument is presented in an emotional way to persuade the reader to believe the necessity of a new Enlightenment movement.

措辞特征指的是作者为了更好地实现某种特殊效果而有意识选择某些词。这些词一般具有如下特征：

● 有特殊渲染力的词或短语；

● 暗含或者传达了某种态度或情绪的词，一般可以把措辞（diction）和语气（tone）结合分析；

● 有暗指（connotation）的词或短语。

例文："…by judging his diction (i.e. using well-known phrases, selecting words with strong connotations), Summers creates something out of ordinary. It is with word choice such as recycled rather than trashed" that the author reveals the legislations intent to stir up a repeat bill… his humorous diction provides a link between he and the audience…Negative words with especially poor connotations also aid Summers in his persuasive struggle. "reprieve", "dubious", "bureaucracy", and "evil incarnate" all depict a disparaging tone of annoyance and anger, surely helping Summers to spread his message.

所有的文体特征都是为了从修辞策略角度说服读者。古希腊时期，智者们积极探索真理，追求知识，说服君主或其他学者认可自己的文化或政治思想，他们因此博览群书，能言善辩，从而促成了思想学术空前的蓬勃发展。这一时期，针对演说和辩论的各种说服技巧开始诞生，其中最为显著的技巧就是修辞策略。

“亚里士多德将修辞定义为‘一种发现存在于每一种可行事例中的说服方式的能力’”。这样他就把修辞定位为一种“创意与发明”，而不仅仅是单纯地从演说辩论的实践角度考虑。换句话说，亚里士多德在原则上将修辞看作一种为寻求劝说辩论与诉求而进行的研究，而不是一种创作引人入胜的演说的技巧。他强调的是对说服方式的探讨和对修辞能力的培养。而所谓的“说服方式”，则是指言之成理、合乎逻辑的论证方式。一名熟练的修辞者可以彰显真理，伸张正义，可以把复杂的事情表达得通俗易懂，可以驳论辩护。¹

议论文（Argument）的主要目的是劝说读者接受作者的某种观点（Claim）。亚里士多德提出了三大修辞策略的基石：诉诸于理（Logos）、诉诸于情（Pathos）、诉诸于德（Ethos），而这三大修辞策略的载体就是文体特征。

诉诸于理是指“言语本身所包括的事据即为推理证明”，即“逻辑论证”（logical proofs）。因此，理性诉求既是对理性推论的研究，也是对言语逻辑的研究。²

诉诸于情是指“通过对听众心理的了解来诉诸他们的感情，用言辞去打动听众”，即我们通常所说的“动之以情”。它通过调动听众情感产生说服的效力，可以说是一种“情绪论证”（pathetic proofs），主要依靠使听众处于某种心情而实现。³

诉诸于德是指“通过修辞者的道德品质、人格威信去打动听众”，而人格对于说服几乎是起着支配作用的因素。⁴（Kenndy 1991:38）

示例

a. 诉诸于理（Appeal to Reason）

• According to a study by CNN, 28% of teenagers report that they could manage without a TV.

这段话引用了来自于权威机构的调查数据，使得读者从逻辑上更相信有一部分青少年可以不看电视这个观点。

• More than 60,000 coronary bypass operations are done annually; their success can be traced to the fact that they were originally performed on animals.

这段话引用了数据和事实论据，使得读者从理性上更信服手术的可靠性。

• For example, it was thought that the presence of organic materials on a Martian meteorite found in Antarctica in 1996 is proof of life on Mars. Other experts point to a powerful radio signal from outer space detected in 2003, arguing that it had a frequency likely to be used for interplanetary communication and is therefore indirect evidence of extraterrestrial life.

这段话采用了事例论据，使得读者从理性上更相信外星生命的存在。

上面的三段话分别采用了权威调查、事实和数据论据以及事例论据，诉诸于逻辑，使得读者在理性上对作者的观点更为信服。

b. 诉诸于情（Appeal to Emotion）

• Do we want our children growing up in a world where they are threatened with violence on every street corner?

这段话采用了反问的修辞手法，从情感上激发读者对于暴力的危害的思考。

• They remained constantly attentive to their goal, as a sunflower always turns and stays focused on the sun.

这段话采用了比喻的修辞手法，让读者更生动形象地理解了目标的专注性这个抽象概念。

• By narrowly defining the content that must be taught in all schools they are eroding the spirit of unrestricted inquiry that was central to the establishment of the public school system by Thomas Jefferson. Surely Socrates and Jefferson are rolling in their graves.

这段话采用了用典的修辞手法，让读者从情感上更信服学校模板化教学是对自由精神的侵犯。

上面的三段话分别使用了反问、比喻和用典这几种修辞手法，增加了文章的生动性，诉诸于情感，使得读者对文章的观点更加信服。

c. 诉诸于德（Appeal to Ethic）

• "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best."

作者通过展现在商业领域的多年经验和员工的专业性，向读者展现了其信誉度和权威性。

• "John is a forensics and ballistics expert working for the federal government for many years — if anyone's qualified to determine the murder weapon, it's him."

作者通过表明约翰在联邦政府作为法医和弹道专家的经验，说服读者相信他是可以断定杀人武器的最佳人选。

上面的两段话使用了专家的言语或表明了专家的权威地位，增加了文章的可信度。

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